Cited by 1,396Eating Disorders and BehaviorsNutrition, Health and Food BehaviorRegulation of Appetite and Obesity

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How emotions affect eating: A five-way model

Macht, Michael·2008·Appetite

DOI 10.1016/j.appet.2007.07.002

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Abstract

Despite the importance of affective processes in eating behaviour, it remains difficult to predict how emotions affect eating. Emphasizing individual differences, previous research did not pay full attention to the twofold variability of emotion-induced changes of eating (variability across both individuals and emotions). By contrast, the present paper takes into account both individual characteristics and emotion features, and specifies five classes of emotion-induced changes of eating: (1) emotional control of food choice, (2) emotional suppression of food intake, (3) impairment of cognitive eating controls, (4) eating to regulate emotions, and (5) emotion-congruent modulation of eating. These classes are distinguished by antecedent conditions, eating responses and mediating mechanisms. They point to basic functional principles underlying the relations between emotions and biologically based motives: interference, concomitance and regulation. Thus, emotion-induced changes of eating can be a result of interference of eating by emotions, a by-product of emotions, and a consequence of regulatory processes (i.e., emotions may regulate eating, and eating may regulate emotions).

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Sierra, I., Senín-Calderón, C., Roncero, M., & Perpiñá, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.723732 · Cited by 8
“These data seem to point to a dimensional continuum for the relationship between eating symptomatology and negative affect, which is consistent with studies conducted with non-clinical samples showing that participants without ED ate more after experiencing NA (Macht, 2008).”
BackgroundResult
Serial coping to anxiety under a pandemic and subsequent regulation of vice food and beverage consumption among young adults
Jaud, D. A., & Lunardo, R. (2022) · Journal of Consumer Affairs · doi:10.1111/joca.12442 · Cited by 12
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Emotions and Eating Disorders: Treatment Implications
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Mindfulness facets differentially relate to self-reported negative and positive emotional eating types in treatment-seeking adults with overweight/obesity
Barnhart, W. R., Kalantzis, M. A., & Braden, A. L. (2023) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/s40519-023-01578-9 · Cited by 11
“Examining associations between specific types of selfreported negative emotional eating and mindfulness facets is important given research suggests that negative emotional eating is a heterogenous construct [1, 33, 34].”
Background
Neurobiological Consequences of High-Fat High-Sugar Diets on the Mesocorticolimbic System: a Narrative Review
Atar, A. (2026) · Current Nutrition Reports · doi:10.1007/s13668-026-00729-5 · Cited by 14
The Choice Between Bad and Worse: A Cognitive Agent Model for Desire Regulation Under Stress
Ullah, N., & Jan Treur, A. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-33792-6_34 · Cited by 11
Mediating effect of negative perceived stress on the relationship between premenstrual syndrome and emotional eating
Um, Y., & Lee, J. (2023) · Nutrition Research and Practice · doi:10.4162/nrp.2023.17.2.330 · Cited by 14
“As is already well known from previous studies, stress is a cause of emotional eating [30].”
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Can Dried Fruits Replace Unhealthy Snacking among Millennials? An Empirical Study on Dried Fruit Consumption in Italy
Testa, R., Rizzo, G., Schifani, G., Tinebra, I., Farina, V., Vella, F., & Migliore, G. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su15097083 · Cited by 13
Negative family body talk and negative emotional eating among Chinese adolescent girls and young adult women: The role of body dissatisfaction and feminism consciousness
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Validation of the Adult Eating Behavior Questionnaire in an Italian Community Sample
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Unraveling the complexity and instability of negative emotional eating: A latent transition analysis
Bao, J., Lei, T., Zhu, C., & Zang, Y. (2024) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2024.107657 · Cited by 12
Negative emotional eating patterns in Chinese adolescents: A replication and longitudinal extension with latent profile and transition analyses
Weng, H., Barnhart, W. R., Zickgraf, H. F., Dixit, U., Cheng, Y., Chen, G., & He, J. (2024) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2024.107728 · Cited by 12
Mindful Eating and Diet Quality Among US Adults With Lower Incomes
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Taming “hanger” and falling prey to boredom-emotional and stress-eating in 801 healthy individuals using ecological momentary assessment
Aulbach, M. B., Bamberg, C., Reichenberger, J., Arend, A., & Blechert, J. (2025) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2025.107897 · Cited by 12
“First theories of emotional eating assumed a uniform affect-eating link across individuals (Macht, 2008; Macht & Simons, 2011), based on animal work that emphasized physiological processes (Adam & Epel, 2007).”
Prevalence of stress and associated factors among students in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Bezie, A. E., Abere, G., Zewude, G. T., Desye, B., Daba, C., Abeje, E. T., & Keleb, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1518851 · Cited by 20
“Infrequent exercise, alcohol consumption, smoking, khat chewing, sleep disturbances, and poor dietary habits are linked to elevated stress (30, 31).”
Bidirectional associations between affect and food craving within and between individuals: A mega-analysis
Aulbach, M. B., Bamberg, C., Reichenberger, J., Arend, A., & Blechert, J. (2025) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2025.107936 · Cited by 14
“Through this combination of classical and instrumental conditioning eating can become an emotion regulation strategy, consciously or not (Chawner & Fili-ppetti, 2024; Karlsson et al., 2000; Klatzkin et al., 2022; Macht, 2008).”
The role of BDNF on food intake and overweight: Linking neuroplasticity and obesity
Sequeira‐Cordero, A., Brenes, J. C., & Vindas-Smith, R. (2025) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2025.111457 · Cited by 13
Influence of Self-Control and Affect on Binge Eating Behavior
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Calorie Intake and Gambling: Is Fat and Sugar Consumption ‘Impulsive’?
Chamberlain, S. R., Redden, S. A., & Grant, J. E. (2016) · Journal of Gambling Studies · doi:10.1007/s10899-016-9647-1 · Cited by 12
“Our data are consistent with the notion that preference for palatable but unhealthy foodstuffs can develop as a means of temporarily providing relief from negative emotional states of anxiety and low mood (Macht 2008).”
Body-related shame or guilt? Dominant factors in maladaptive eating behaviors among Hungarian and Norwegian university students
Vizin, G., Horváth, Z., Vankó, T., & Urbán, R. (2022) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e08817 · Cited by 12
“…with 20 January 2022 rticle under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- maladaptive eating behaviors (e.g., Goss and Gilbert, 2002; Henderson et al., 2019; Kelly and Tasca, 2016; Macht, 2008; Mallorquí-Bagu e et al., 2018; Prefit et al., 2019; Swan and Andrews, 2003).”
Background
Acute impact of light at night and exogenous melatonin on subjective appetite and plasma leptin
Albreiki, M. S., Shamlan, G. H., BaHammam, A. S., Alruwaili, N. W., Middleton, B., & Hampton, S. M. (2022) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2022.1079453 · Cited by 12
Comparing food consumption during the COVID-19 pandemic: analysis of household income and expenditure survey data in Iran
Hajipoor, M., Rahbarinejad, P., Irankhah, K., & Sobhani, S. R. (2023) · Journal of Health Population and Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s41043-023-00385-3 · Cited by 11
“The psychological effects of changing food choices could have led to irregular eating and more frequent snacking [9, 10].”
Background
The emotional influence of flowers on social perception and memory: An exploratory study
Mojet, J., Köster, E. P., Holthuysen, N. T. E., Veggel, R. J. F. M. V., de Wijk, R. A., Schepers, H. E., & Vermeer, F. (2016) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.06.003 · Cited by 11
Body Mass Index Trajectories from Adolescence to Early Young Adulthood: Do Adverse Life Events Play a Role?
Elsenburg, L. K., Smidt, N., Hoek, H. W., & Liefbroer, A. C. (2017) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.22022 · Cited by 11
“Some adolescents might cope well with adversity in life, while others cope with adversity by displaying unhealthy behaviors, such as unhealthy or restrained eating (37).”
Psychometric properties of NIH PROMIS® instruments in bariatric surgery candidates.
Kudel, I., Pona, A. A., Cox, S. J., Szoka, N. L., Tabone, L. E., & Brode, C. S. (2019) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000697 · Cited by 11
“For example, high caloric foods such as sweets and fats trigger a cascade of physiological responses that can contribute to binge eating (Jansen, 1998; Macht, 2008; Nederkoorn, Smulders, & Jansen, 2000), resulting in decreased distress or positive emotions (Rosenstein & Oster, 1988, as cited in Macht, 2008).”
Development and validation of the Multidimensional Internally Regulated Eating Scale (MIRES)
Palascha, A., van Kleef, E., de Vet, E., & van Trijp, J. C. M. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0239904 · Cited by 10
“Additionally, high-arousal emotions are assumed to have a universal effect by suppressing eating, while there is more variability in how individuals respond to emotions of moderate arousal [16].”
Background
Increased incidence of acute calculous cholecystitis observed during COVID-19 social restrictions
Murphy, M. C., Dempsey, P. J., Gillespie, C. D., Murphy, A. N., & McNicholas, M. M. J. (2021) · Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -) · doi:10.1007/s11845-021-02587-2 · Cited by 11
Understanding the determinants of stress-induced eating – A qualitative study
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“For many, eating is the easiest and most affordable means of coping with stress, anxiety, boredom, loneliness, isolation, abuse, despair and frustration [8].”
Background
Changing Food Consumption Patterns and Their Drivers
Kearney, J. M. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-100596-5.21988-4 · Cited by 13
Mindfulness-based stress reduction training supplemented with physiological signals from smartwatch improves mindfulness and reduces stress, but not anxiety and depression
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Stress-induced eating and drinking and their associations with weight among women and men during 30-year follow-up
Rosenqvist, E., Kiviruusu, O. H., Berg, N., & Konttinen, H. M. (2023) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2023.2192240 · Cited by 12
“…appetite, moderate stress and negative emotions can result in increased appetite and eating, as found in several meta-analyses (Cardi et al., 2015; Evers et al., 2018; Hill et al., 2022) as well as in theoretical and empirical studies (Adam & Epel, 2007; Macht, 2008; Richardson et al., 2015).”
Adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation skills are associated with food intake following a hunger-induced increase in negative emotions
Ackermans, M. A., Jonker, N. C., & de Jong, P. J. (2023) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2023.107148 · Cited by 14
“That is, eating has been found to increase, decrease, or remain unchanged following negative emotions (Macht, 2008).”
Influential
Different sedentary behavior domains present distinct associations with eating-related indicators
Júdice, P. B., Carraça, E. V., Santos, I., Palmeira, A. L., Jerónimo, F., & Silva, M. N. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-17760-2 · Cited by 10
“Also, emotional states have an important impact over one’s eating behavior, mainly by depleting his/her cognitive resources [51], which has in fact been associated with increased consumption of unhealthy, highly palatable foods [52].”
Background
Nutritional Counseling Based on Mindful Eating for the Eating Behavior of People Living with Overweight and Obesity: A Randomized Clinical Trial
Moreira, M. F. S., de Azevedo, B. E. F., Beretta, M. V., & Busnello, F. M. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16244388 · Cited by 10
“…EE in the intervention group can suggest less susceptibility to internal cues that lead to eating [50] and to palatable food-seeking behavior to regulate difficult emotional states [51], while a lower UE may indicate a better response to hunger and satiety signals and improved oral control [30].”
Exploring the roles of food with different sensory attributes in stress relief: Insights from sweet and spicy foods
Lee, S.-H., & Hong, J.-H. (2024) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2024.105422 · Cited by 10
Clustering individuals’ temporal patterns of affective states, hunger, and food craving by latent class vector-autoregression
Pannicke, B., Jens Blechert, A., Reichenberger, J., & Kaiser, T. (2022) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-022-01293-1 · Cited by 10
Associations between Emotion Regulation, Feeding Practices, and Preschoolers’ Food Consumption
Santos, A. F., Fernandes, C., Fernandes, M., dos Santos, A. J., & Veríssimo, M. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14194184 · Cited by 14

Authors: Macht, M.
Affiliations: University of Würzburg (DE)
Corresponding author: Macht, Michael
ORCID: Macht, Michael
Venue: Appetite
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2008-01
Volume: 50
Issue: 1
Pages: 1-11
ISSN: 0195-6663 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2007.07.002
OpenAlex: W2007130974
Cited by: 1,396
References: 156
Citations by year: 2026: 96 · 2025: 109 · 2024: 102 · 2023: 136 · 2022: 107 · 2021: 126 · 2020: 95 · 2019: 82 · 2018: 72 · 2017: 80 · 2016: 74 · 2015: 80 · 2014: 68 · 2013: 47 · 2012: 40
FWCI: 2.41
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Appetite (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
Keywords: eating behaviour, food choice, emotion regulation, emotional suppression, cognitive control, individual differences, emotion features
MeSH terms: Appetite Regulation, Eating, Emotions, Food, Food Preferences, Humans, Models, Biological

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How emotions affect eating: A five-way model

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