The microbiota influences cell death and microglial colonization in the perinatal mouse brain
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The mammalian fetus develops in a largely sterile environment, and direct exposure to a complex microbiota does not occur until birth. We took advantage of this to examine the effect of the microbiota on brain development during the first few days of life. The expression of anti- and pro-inflammatory cytokines, developmental cell death, and microglial colonization in the brain were compared between newborn conventionally colonized mice and mice born in sterile, germ-free (GF) conditions. Expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin 1β and tumor necrosis factor α was markedly suppressed in GF newborns. GF mice also had altered cell death, with some regions exhibiting higher rates (paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and the CA1 oriens layer of the hippocampus) and other regions exhibiting no change or lower rates (arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus) of cell death. Microglial labeling was elevated in GF mice, due to an increase in both microglial cell size and number. The changes in cytokine expression, cell death and microglial labeling were evident on the day of birth, but were absent on embryonic day 18.5, approximately one-half day prior to expected delivery. Taken together, our results suggest that direct exposure to the microbiota at birth influences key neurodevelopmental events and does so within hours. These findings may help to explain some of the behavioral and neurochemical alterations previously seen in adult GF mice.
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Altered microglial morphology and density, as well as attenuated inflammatory responses, are observed in offspring of GF dams immediately after birth.
“Altered microglial morphology and density, as well as attenuated inflammatory responses, are also observed in offspring of GF dams immediately after birth, a time when microglia typically exhibit an activated phenotype (Castillo-Ruiz et al., 2018).”
From Microbiome–microglia connections via the gut–brain axis (2019) · cites this paper as Castillo-Ruiz et al., 2018
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BackgroundGut microbiota and the neuroendocrine system
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Is oxytocin “nature’s medicine”
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Recognizing Depression from the Microbiota–Gut–Brain Axis
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Gut-Brain Psychology: Rethinking Psychology From the Microbiota–Gut–Brain Axis
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Perinatal Interactions between the Microbiome, Immunity, and Neurodevelopment
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From Maternal Diet to Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Story of Neuroinflammation
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The Gut Microbiome as a Regulator of the Neuroimmune Landscape
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How microbiota shape microglial phenotypes and epigenetics
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Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Major Depression: A New Therapeutic Approach
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First Encounters: Effects of the Microbiota on Neonatal Brain Development
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Does Birth Trigger Cell Death in the Developing Brain?
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Gut microbiota – host interactions now also brain-immune axis
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The Potential Impact of the Gut Microbiota on Neonatal Brain Development and Adverse Health Outcomes
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Interactions of the maternal microbiome with diet, stress, and infection influence fetal development
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Temperature and the microbial environment alter brain morphology in a larval amphibian
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Neuroglia and the microbiota-gut-brain axis
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Balancing Microglial Density and Activation in Central Nervous System Development and Disease
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Microglia and Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis
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- Authors
- Castillo-Ruiz, A., Mosley, M., George, A. J., Mussaji, L. F., Fullerton, E. F., Ruszkowski, E. M., Jacobs, A. J., Gewirtz, A. T., Chassaing, B., & Forger, N. G.
- Affiliations
- Georgia State University (US)
- Venue
- Brain, Behavior, and Immunity
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-01
- Volume
- 67
- Pages
- 218-229
- ISSN
- 0889-1591 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5696094
- OpenAlex
- W2753781001
- Cited by
- 91
- References
- 90
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 3.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/ (am, 318 d)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-017 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-037 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-012 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-029 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-004 (stm-asf)
- Locations
- Brain Behavior and Immunity (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (IOS-1743673)
- National Institutes of Health (R21-MH108345)
- Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America (CCFA)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Neurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms
- Keywords
- gut microbiota, germ-free mice, neonatal brain development, developmental cell death, inflammatory cytokines, IL-1β, TNF-α, hypothalamus, hippocampus, perinatal period, neuroinflammation
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Encephalitis, Female, Male, Neurons, Pregnancy, Cell Death, Microglia, Inflammation Mediators, Mice, Microbiota
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