Sex differences in microglial colonization of the developing rat brain
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J. Neurochem. (2012) 120 , 948–963. Microglia are the resident immune cells within the brain and their production of immune molecules such as cytokines and chemokines is critical for the processes of normal brain development including neurogenesis, axonal migration, synapse formation, and programmed cell death. Notably, sex differences exist in many of these processes throughout brain development; however, it is unknown whether a sex difference concurrently exists in the colonization, number, or morphology of microglia within the developing brain. We demonstrate for the first time that the number and morphology of microglia throughout development is dependent upon the sex and age of the individual, as well as the brain region of interest. Males have overall more microglia early in postnatal development [postnatal day (P) 4], whereas females have more microglia with an activated/amoeboid morphology later in development, as juveniles and adults (P30–60). Finally, gene expression of a large number of cytokines, chemokines and their receptors shifts dramatically over development, and is highly dependent upon sex. Taken together, these data warrant further research into the role that sex‐dependent mechanisms may play in microglial colonization, number, and function, and their potential contribution to neural development, function, or potential dysfunction.
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Microglia are highly affected by sex hormones.
“Microglia, which are the resident innate immune cells of the CNS, are highly affected by sex hormones [14, 16–20].”
From Sex chromosomes and sex hormones differently shape microglial properties during normal physiological conditions in the adult mouse hippocampus (2025) · cites this paper as [17]
The Discussion reports substantial sex differences in microglial number and morphology in developing rats and proposes that early differences may be induced by sex hormones. It also says the hormonal mechanism is unclear, so it does not establish the claim that microglia are highly affected by sex hormones. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAnimal work indicates that males possess more microglia early in life, whereas females have more primed or activated microglia in adolescence and adulthood.
“Early exploration of these pathways in preclinical models suggests that males have more microglia in early life and females have more activated or primed microglia during adolescence and adulthood (Schwarz et al., 2012).”
From The role of inflammation in core features of depression: Insights from paradigms using exogenously-induced inflammation. (2018) · cites this paper as Schwarz et al., 2012
Gene expression profiles for many cytokines and chemokines are sex-dependent.
“Further, gene expression profiles for a large number of cytokines and chemokines are sex-dependent (Schwarz et al., 2012).”
From The role of inflammation in core features of depression: Insights from paradigms using exogenously-induced inflammation. (2018) · cites this paper as Schwarz et al., 2012
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Makinson, R., Lloyd, K., Rayasam, A., McKee, S., Brown, A., Barila, G., Grissom, N., George, R., Marini, M., Fabry, Z., et al. (2017) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2017.07.016 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
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Activation of neonatal microglia can be influenced by other neural cells
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Self-citationAltered Metabolism and DAM-signatures in Female Brains and Microglia with Aging
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“In contrast, Schwarz and Acaz-Fonseca et al. reported that the mice or rats were in the estrous phase [17, 102].”
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Self-citationConstitutive expression of CX3CR1-BAC-Cre introduces minimal off-target effects in microglia
Mroue-Ruiz, F. H., Desai, B., Garvin, M. M., Shehu, J. H., Kamau, F., Kar, U., & Bolton, J. L. (2026) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2026.153657 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Schwarz, J. M., Sholar, P. W., & Bilbo, S. D.
- Affiliations
- Duke University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Neurochemistry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2012-02-09
- Volume
- 120
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 948-963
- ISSN
- 0022-3042 (ISSN-L)
- 1471-4159
- PMC
- PMC3296888
- OpenAlex
- W1576427485
- Cited by
- 672
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 68 · 2021: 62 · 2020: 58 · 2019: 66 · 2018: 70 · 2017: 45 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 7.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Journal of Neurochemistry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH083698)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA025978, F32DA030136)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Neurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Neonatal and fetal brain pathology
- Keywords
- microglia, sex differences, brain development, microglial morphology, amoeboid microglia, cytokines, chemokines, cytokine receptors, postnatal development, rat brain
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Animals, Animals, Newborn, Brain, Calcium-Binding Proteins, Cell Count, Embryo, Mammalian, Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay, Female, Flow Cytometry, Male, Microfilament Proteins, RNA, Messenger, Sex Characteristics, Interleukin-10, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Microglia, Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental, Rats, Interleukin-1beta, Chemokine CXCL9
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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