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A longitudinal study on the mental health of general population during the COVID-19 epidemic in China
Open accessAbstract
In addition to being a public physical health emergency, Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) affected global mental health, as evidenced by panic-buying worldwide as cases soared. Little is known about changes in levels of psychological impact, stress, anxiety and depression during this pandemic. This longitudinal study surveyed the general population twice - during the initial outbreak, and the epidemic's peak four weeks later, surveying demographics, symptoms, knowledge, concerns, and precautionary measures against COVID-19. There were 1738 respondents from 190 Chinese cities (1210 first-survey respondents, 861 s-survey respondents; 333 respondents participated in both). Psychological impact and mental health status were assessed by the Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R) and the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21), respectively. IES-R measures PTSD symptoms in survivorship after an event. DASS -21 is based on tripartite model of psychopathology that comprise a general distress construct with distinct characteristics. This study found that there was a statistically significant longitudinal reduction in mean IES-R scores (from 32.98 to 30.76, p < 0.01) after 4 weeks. Nevertheless, the mean IES-R score of the first- and second-survey respondents were above the cut-off scores (>24) for PTSD symptoms, suggesting that the reduction in scores was not clinically significant. During the initial evaluation, moderate-to-severe stress, anxiety and depression were noted in 8.1%, 28.8% and 16.5%, respectively and there were no significant longitudinal changes in stress, anxiety and depression levels (p > 0.05). Protective factors included high level of confidence in doctors, perceived survival likelihood and low risk of contracting COVID-19, satisfaction with health information, personal precautionary measures. As countries around the world brace for an escalation in cases, Governments should focus on effective methods of disseminating unbiased COVID-19 knowledge, teaching correct containment methods, ensuring availability of essential services/commodities, and providing sufficient financial support.
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“In a sample of 1,173 undergraduate and postgraduate students from a university in the UK, over 50% of respondents surpassed clinical thresholds for anxiety and depression (21).”
From Mental health status and coping strategies during COVID-19 pandemic among university students in Central Serbia (2023) · cites this paper as [21]
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“recent international studies have reported increased symptoms of anxiety, depression, sleep disorders, and psychological distress during lockdown (4–10)”
From The Evolution of Psychological and Behavioral Consequences of Self-Isolation During Lockdown: A Longitudinal Study Across United Kingdom and Italy (2022) · cites this paper as [10]
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“Although a strength of the present study is that it addresses the absence of longitudinal studies examining the impact of COVID‐19 on adolescents (McGinty et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020), there are several limitations that must be acknowledged.”
From Adolescents' longitudinal trajectories of mental health and loneliness: The impact of COVID‐19 school closures (2022) · cites this paper as Wang et al., 2020
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“Recent research has shown that, in the general public, the COVID-19 pandemic is associated with greater levels of psychological distress and a range of psychopathological problems such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress symptoms (e.g., Gao et al., 2020; Qiu et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020).”
From Why did all the toilet paper disappear? Distinguishing between panic buying and hoarding during COVID-19 (2021) · cites this paper as Wang et al., 2020
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“Consistent with the literature, our research suggested significant deleterious effects after the first week, followed by stabilization of the scores during the subsequent quarantine period, supporting the view that individuals may adapt to the negative consequences of social isolation and home confinement (10, 46, 93).”
From The Evolution of Psychological and Behavioral Consequences of Self-Isolation During Lockdown: A Longitudinal Study Across United Kingdom and Italy (2022) · cites this paper as [10]
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“Parallel literature from other countries indicates that there are higher levels of panic disorder, anxiety, and depression [1,43,44].”
From Relationships between psychopathology, psychological process variables, and sociodemographic variables and comparison of quarantined and non-quarantined groups of malaysian university students in the covid-19 pandemic (2021) · cites this paper as [44]
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“Factors relating to COVID-19 symptoms and disease exposure are associated with negative psychological outcomes including depression, anxiety and stress (Moghanibashi-Mansourieh, 2020; Wang et al., 2020).”
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“as are longitudinal studies including multiple time points during COVID‐19 (Wang et al., 2020).”
From Adolescents' longitudinal trajectories of mental health and loneliness: The impact of COVID‐19 school closures (2022) · cites this paper as Wang et al., 2020
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“Wang et al. (2020) surveyed the general population in China, including adolescents, on two separate occasions (January 31 to February 2, 2020, ages 16–59 years; and February 28 to March 1, 2020, ages 12–59 years) and found levels of stress, anxiety, and depression remained stable, despite sharp increases in the number of COVID‐19 cases between the two surveys.”
From Adolescents' longitudinal trajectories of mental health and loneliness: The impact of COVID‐19 school closures (2022) · cites this paper as Wang et al. (2020)
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“Longitudinally, however, there were no significant changes in stress, anxiety and depression levels after one month in a follow-up study [44].”
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“Similarly, a study by Wang et al. (2020) found that the impact of digital infrastructure on international trade is stronger in countries with better institutional quality.”
From Digital Transformation in International Trade: Opportunities, Challenges, and Policy Implications (2025) · cites this paper as Wang et al. (2020)
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“Similarly, a study by Wang et al. (2020) found that institutional quality, digital infrastructure, and international trade are positively correlated in China.”
From Digital Transformation in International Trade: Opportunities, Challenges, and Policy Implications (2025) · cites this paper as Wang et al. (2020)
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“The authors suggest that better digital infrastructure enhances a country's trade competitiveness by reducing transaction costs and improving access to information.”
From Digital Transformation in International Trade: Opportunities, Challenges, and Policy Implications (2025) · cites this paper as Wang et al. (2020)
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“For example, recent studies found that insufficient information (González-Sanguino et al., 2020) or misinformation (‘fake news’) on COVID-19 (Wang et al., 2020) was associated with poorer mental health and well-being (Ko et al., 2020; Chao et al., 2020; Gao et al., 2020).”
From Lockdown, quarantine measures, and social distancing: Associations with depression, anxiety and distress at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic among adults from Germany (2020) · cites this paper as Wang et al., 2020
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Cites
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“The long-term consequences of lockdown and social distancing for mental health and wellbeing are yet to be determined (Holmes et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020).”
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“As previously stated, the pandemic has restructured many aspects of daily life, and the resulting stress has had a negative impact on all individuals (Wang et al., 2020).”
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Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Mental Health Nurses
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“However, given that individual customers ’ tolerance level to risk varies (Cao et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020), their expectations of kiosk services could be different (Vakulenko et al., 2019).”
BackgroundResultTao, W., Wu, Y., Li, W., & Liu, F. (2022) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings12111873 · Cited by 19
Gewalt, S. C., Berger, S., Krisam, R., Krisam, J., & Breuer, M. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0275055 · Cited by 15
“Moreover, a recent longitudinal study of the mental health of Chinese adults found that female sex was associated with higher psychological effects [33].”
Muneeb, N. U. A., & Hassan, S. M. U. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03551-8 · Cited by 17
Kayaoğlu, K., & Başcıllar, M. (2022) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1111/jcap.12384 · Cited by 13
“Lockdowns (Loades et al., 2020), intense use of social media (Ellis et al., 2020), and exposure to newspapers about the pandemic (C. Wang et al., 2020) increase the risk of depression in adolescents.”
BackgroundAn evaluation of Internet searches as a marker of trends in population mental health in the US
Vaidyanathan, U., Sun, Y., Shekel, T., Chou, K., Galea, S., Gabrilovich, E., & Wellenius, G. A. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-12952-5 · Cited by 19
Psychological state and its correlates of local college students in Wuhan during COVID‐19 pandemic
Liu, F., Dai, L., Cai, Y., Chen, X., Li, J., & Shi, L. (2022) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22699 · Cited by 19
Parenting and Children’s Behavior During the COVID 19 Pandemic: Mother’s Perspective
Rubilar, J. V., Richaud, M. C., Lemos, V., & Balabanian, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.801614 · Cited by 15
Kang, N., Bell, S., Thompson, C. W., Zheng, M., Xu, Z., & Sun, Z. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.816417 · Cited by 20
Hagan, J. E., Quansah, F., Ankomah, F., Agormedah, E. K., Srem‐Sai, M., Frimpong, J. B., & Schack, T. (2022) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci11030137 · Cited by 22
Chen, I., Lin, Y.-C., Lin, C., Wang, W., & Gamble, J. H. (2022) · Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.31083/j.jomh1803070 · Cited by 12
“[47] Zhuang Z, Cao P, Zhao S, Lou Y, Yang S,WangW, et al. Estimation of local Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) cases in Wuhan, China from off-site reported cases and population flow data from different sources.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialZhao, J.-J., Yan, M.-Y., Fan, B.-B., Zhang, Y.-Y., Oguz, A., Wang, Y., & Xi, J.-Z. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19053049 · Cited by 15
“, the general population in China showed no significant longitudinal changes in stress, anxiety, and depression levels during the initial COVID-19 and the peak four weeks later [35].”
BackgroundBusetta, G., Campolo, M. G., & Panarello, D. (2022) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/s11135-022-01330-y · Cited by 17
“, 2021), China (Qiu et al., 2020; Ran et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020), India (Mahanty et al.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEl‐Monshed, A. H., Loutfy, A., Saad, M. T. E., Ali, A. S., El‐Gilany, A., Mohamed, A. S., Salah, M., & Zoromba, M. A. (2022) · African Journal of Primary Health Care & Family Medicine · doi:10.4102/phcfm.v14i1.2896 · Cited by 19
Lu, T., Yu, Y., Zhao, Z., & Guo, R. (2022) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2020.0416 · Cited by 20
Wang, L., Yeerjiang, Y., Gao, H. F., Pei, J. F., Zhang, R. X., & Xu, W. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.01.056 · Cited by 17
Sun, L.-Y. (2021) · Psychiatria Danubina · doi:10.24869/psyd.2021.626 · Cited by 15
Chi, X., Huang, L., Hall, D. L., Li, R., Liang, K., Hossain, M. M., & Guo, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.759379 · Cited by 21
Doorn, K. A., Békés, V., & Luo, X. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11101288 · Cited by 21
Carbone, E., Palumbo, R., Sella, E., Lenti, G., Domenico, A. D., & Borella, E. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.712369 · Cited by 15
Shaikh, A. T., Peprah, E. B., Mohamed, R. H., Asghar, A., Andharia, N. V., Lajot, N. A., & Qureshi, M. F. H. (2021) · Middle East Current Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s43045-021-00116-6 · Cited by 22
Feng, P., Chen, Z., Becker, B., Liu, X., Zhou, F., He, Q., Qiu, J., Lei, X., Chen, H., & Feng, T. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab232 · Cited by 18
Allande‐Cussó, R., Manrique, M. L., Gómez-Salgado, J. C., Ruiz, A. R., Romero‐Martín, M., García‐Iglesias, J. J., & Ruíz-Frutos, C. (2021) · Science Progress · doi:10.1177/00368504211038191 · Cited by 15
“40 No correlation was either found between the level of self-perceived health and anxiety levels, although it should be noted that there are studies in the literature showing the importance of assessing the perception of risk in both its cognitive and affective dimension, with the intention of understanding people’s b…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialFrenzel, S. B., Junker, N. M., Avanzi, L., Bolatov, A., Haslam, S. A., Häusser, J. A., Kark, R., Meyer, I., Mojzisch, A., Monzani, L., et al. (2021) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12470 · Cited by 18
“The COVID19 pandemic is a (life) threatening and unpredictable stressor, which greatly impacts individuals’mental andphysical health as reports of significant increases in anxiety, stress, and depression have demonstrated (Wang et al., 2020a, 2020b;Wang, Xia, et al., 2020).”
BackgroundHou, L., Long, F., Meng, Y., Cheng, X., Zhang, W., & Zhou, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.575684 · Cited by 19
Stafford, O., Berry, A., Taylor, L. K., Wearen, S., Prendergast, C., Murphy, E., Shevlin, M., McHugh, L., Carr, A., & Burke, T. (2021) · Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/ipm.2021.37 · Cited by 15
“…University Press on behalf of The College of Psychiatrists of Ireland SHORT REPORTdoi:10.1017/ipm.2021.37 The study revealed that the most notable expression was found for anxiety, compared to depression and stress, amongst the general population in China (Wang et al. 2020; Smith et al. 2020).”
InfluentialCovid-19's Impact on China's Economy Based on Data of Spring Festival Travel Rush
Wang, Y., Fang, Z., & Gao, W. (2020) · Disasters · doi:10.1111/disa.12476 · Cited by 29
“…has taken strong measures to fight against Covid-19—restaurants, tourism, cultural and entertainment venues were temporarily closed; cities were closed with strict regional regulatory restrictions; the Lunar New Year holiday was extended; the new year school was delayed (Wang et al., 2020).”
BackgroundBhuiyan, N., Puzia, M., Stecher, C. D., & Huberty, J. (2021) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/26037 · Cited by 16
“Studies assessing changes in psychological outcomes over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic have resulted in mixed findings; for example, one study found increases in depression and decreases in anxiety in Argentina [36], another study found increases in anxiety in the United Kingdom [37], and another found no change…”
ResultSuicide during the COVID-19 pandemic in JapanPreprint
Tanaka, T., & Okamoto, S. (2020) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.08.30.20184168 · Cited by 15
Ethical issues after the earthquake in Turkey: A qualitative study on nurses' perspectives
Ünsal, B., Arıca, E. Ö., & Akarsu, R. H. (2024) · International Nursing Review · doi:10.1111/inr.13048 · Cited by 14
“Disasters occur globally, severely affecting individuals, families, and communities (Wang et al., 2020).”
An evaluation of digital intervention for perinatal depression and anxiety: A systematic review
Arifin, S. R. M., Kamaruddin, A., Muhammad, N. A., Nurumal, M. S., Mohadis, H., Hussain, N. H. N., & Wardaningsih, S. (2024) · AIMS Public Health · doi:10.3934/publichealth.2024025 · Cited by 14
“Thus, iCBT can offer significant user convenience by allowing more therapy choices and reducing transportation and wait times, not to mention better protection of patient privacy [46].”
BackgroundInfluentialGonzález‐Marín, A., & Garrido‐Cumbrera, M. (2024) · Landscape Ecology · doi:10.1007/s10980-024-01833-z · Cited by 17
“During the pandemic, people experienced higher levels of anxiety or depression (Qiu et al. 2020a; Wang et al. 2020), loneliness (Bu et al. 2020) and irritability (Panchal et al. 2023) that resulted in a decrease in well-being (Spano et al. 2021).”
The impact of COVID-19 on physical and mental health: A longitudinal study
Su, Y., & Zhou, D. (2023) · SSM: Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2023.101538 · Cited by 14
“In line with Wang et al., (2020), women were more likely to be affected in terms of chronic disease, experiencing sleeping difficulties and feeling depressed.”
MethodYotsidi, V., Nikolatou, E. K., Κουρκούτας, Η., & Kougioumtzis, G. Α. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1171225 · Cited by 17
The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on suicide mortality in Spain: Differences by sex and age
Martínez‐Alés, G., López‐Cuadrado, T., Morrison, C., Keyes, K. M., & Susser, E. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.02.115 · Cited by 19
Is Nomophobia Problematic or Functional? A Perspective from Bifactor Structure
Ren, S., Liu, T., Zhao, X., Yang, H., & Elhai, J. D. (2023) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-023-01030-0 · Cited by 20
“The DASS-21 is a widely cited scale that contains three subscales (Li et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2020), including depression, anxiety, and stress.”
Sarracino, F., Greyling, T., O’Connor, K. J., Peroni, C., & Rossouw, S. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0275028 · Cited by 22
Wu, J., & Liu, Q. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115058 · Cited by 16
Feraco, T., Casali, N., & Meneghetti, C. (2022) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-022-00667-0 · Cited by 21
Characteristics of the school adaptation of college freshmen during the COVID-19 epidemic
Niu, H., Ren, S., & Li, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.915403 · Cited by 16
“…date, many studies have investigated the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health in many cohorts, such as those of the general population (Wang et al., 2020), the affected population (Zhang et al., 2021), healthcare workers (Ricci-Cabello et al., 2020), and survivors (Zürcher et al.,…”
BackgroundThe COVID-19 burnout scale: development and initial validation
Galanis, P., Katsiroumpa, A., Sourtzi, P., Siskou, O. C., Konstantakopoulou, O., & Καϊτελίδου, Δ. (2023) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2023.2245914 · Cited by 14
Association between depressive symptoms in the postpartum period and COVID-19: A meta-analysis
Lin, C.-P., Chen, B., Yang, Y.-J., Li, Q., Wang, Q.-G., Wang, M., Guo, S., & Tao, S.-S. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.129 · Cited by 14
“China's dynamic zeroCOVID policies and high vaccination rates have ensured extremely low morbidity, mortality, and hospitalization rates and smoothed social and economic operation(Wang et al., 2020), the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic has been well controlled, people's fear of the epidemic has been slowly calmed, and…”
BackgroundVulnerability assessment of Iran's rural-farmer households during COVID-19 pandemic
Amghani, M. S., Savari, M., & Choobchian, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.994922 · Cited by 14
“This acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was recorded for the first time in Wuhan in the People’s Republic of China (10, 11) and reported by WHO on Dec.”
BackgroundInfluentialChen, Y., Wang, P., He, Y., Jiang, F., Liu, H., Liu, Y., Liu, T., Tang, Y., & Zhu, J. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.08.089 · Cited by 15
Mental Health during the Early Stage of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Hong Kong Study
Cheung, P.-K., Wu, J., & Chui, W. H. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19158957 · Cited by 16
“There were 118,000 cases reported in 114 countries and more than 90 percent of these cases were in China, South Korea, Iran, and Italy.”
ResultInfluentialGarcía-Garro, P. A., Aibar‐Almazán, A., Rivas-Campo, Y., Vega-Ávila, G. C., Afanador-Restrepo, D. F., & Hita‐Contreras, F. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11144104 · Cited by 19
“In relation to the evolution of changes in mental and physical health during the COVID19 pandemic, most studies compared data pre pandemic/lockdown [26], at different times of confinement [28], and lockdown/post lockdown [27,29].”
BackgroundAlonso-Fernández, D., Fernández-Rodríguez, R., Taboada-Iglesias, Y., & Gutiérrez-Sánchez, Á. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19106145 · Cited by 18
“Among the consequences reported were a reduction in physical activity levels and an increase in sedentary lifestyles [27,28], weight gain, poorer sleep quality [27], altered eating habits [27,29] and an adverse impact on mental health [30].”
BackgroundPelly, D., Daly, M., Delaney, L. D., & Doyle, O. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.823080 · Cited by 30
Jáuregui, A., Argumedo, G., Hernández-Alcaraz, C., Contreras-Manzano, A., Salinas-Rodríguez, A., & Salvo, D. (2022) · Preventing Chronic Disease · doi:10.5888/pcd19.210324 · Cited by 14
“Conversely, results of our study showed that increased leisure screen time was associated with increased symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression during the stay-at-home period, as suggested by a review study identifying excessive sedentary time as a risk factor for depression in adults (27).”
Depression in China During the Coronavirus 2019 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study
Liu, W., Yu, F., Geldsetzer, P., Yang, J., Wang, Z., Golden, T. R., Jiao, L., Chen, Q., Liu, H., Wu, P., et al. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-056667 · Cited by 19
Self-citationMental health of students amidst the COVID-19 pandemic: An empirical study
Alam, M. A., Uddin, A. I., Uddin, M. A., Begum, S., Nahar, H., Raihan, T., & Khan, A. G. (2022) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09111 · Cited by 13
“Second, the cross-sectional data alongside the small sample size was another drawback limiting the drawing of causal inference from the findings [89].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Wang, C., Pan, R., Wan, X., Tan, Y., Xu, L., McIntyre, R. S., Choo, F. N., Tran, B., Ho, R., Sharma, V. K., & Ho, C.
- Affiliations
- Huaibei Normal University (CN)
- University Health Network (CA)
- National University of Singapore (SG)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ho, Roger
- ORCID
- Venue
- Brain, Behavior, and Immunity
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-07
- Volume
- 87
- Pages
- 40-48
- ISSN
- 0889-1591 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7153528
- OpenAlex
- W3016216556
- Cited by
- 2,571
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 32 · 2025: 103 · 2024: 176 · 2023: 347 · 2022: 611 · 2021: 845 · 2020: 455
- FWCI
- 225.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Brain Behavior and Immunity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- National University of Singapore (submittedVersion)
- Rare & Special e-Zone (The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National University of Singapore (R-722-000-004-731)
- Huaibei Normal University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, mental health, psychological impact, anxiety, depression, stress, post-traumatic stress disorder, general population, protective factors, perceived infection risk, precautionary measures, China
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, Internet-Based Intervention, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety, Child, China, Depression, Female, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Masks, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Pneumonia, Viral, Psychotherapy, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Stress, Psychological, Health Behavior, Coronavirus Infections, Young Adult, Epidemics, Pandemics, Hand Hygiene
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