On the need for attention-aware systems: Measuring effects of interruption on task performance, error rate, and affective state
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“While the above two approaches discuss affect briefly, the focus is only on negative emotion as an outcome (e.g., Bailey & Konstan, 2006).”
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“…nature of self-imposed interruptions , the effects of voluntary task switching on performance are less clear than those documented in the interruptions literature, where there is an extensive body of work (Bailey and Konstan, 2006; Gillie and Broadbent, 1989; McFarlane, 2002; Speier et al., 2003).”
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“... information themselves, they unfortunately have also been considered to be a large source of disruption to ongoing tasks [2, 3, 7]. This assessment is due in part to the fact that notifications often occur at inopportune moments and lure users to process and respond to them [3, 7, 8]. Studies have shown that respo…”
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“In contrast, there is an abundance of studies investigatin g the nature , the reactions and the conseque nces of external interrupti ons (Bailey & Konstan, 2006; Gillie & Broadbent, 1989; McFarlane, 2002; Speier et al., 2003 ).”
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“The interruption is unwelcome and causes negative emotions and the experience of stress (Bailey & Konstan, 2006; Mark et al., 2008; Zeigarnik, 1927).”
BackgroundInfluentialTechnostress Research: A Nurturing Ground for Measurement Pluralism?
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“Additionally, task environment includes constructs that represent characteristics of these roles, such as traits of the job, including job autonomy or dependence on technology (e.g., Bailey & Konstan, 2006; Galluch et al., 2015; Shu et al., 2011; Wang, Ye, & Teo, 2014).”
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“They reduce work productivity and the quality and amount of time available for decision making; they also increase the time that it takes to resume a task after attending to a notification [1, 2, 5, 29, 45, 41].”
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“While some of these interruptions are desired, others might incur a high cost, including long resumption lags, slower performance, negative emotions and an increase in errors due to the interruption happening at inopportune moments [6, 16].”
BackgroundFailures Due to Interruptions or Distractions: A Review and a New Framework
Couffe, C., & Michael, G. A. (2017) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.130.2.0163 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“…be one of the hot topics in applied cognitive sciences, gathering researchers from a wide variety of specialties such as human–computer interaction (Bailey & Konstan, 2006; Roda & Thomas, 2006), cognitive psychology (Eyrolle & Cellier, 2000; Müller & Rabbitt, 1989), neuropsychology (Clapp &…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialIqbal, S. T., & Bailey, B. P. (2007) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/1240624.1240732 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Self-citationUsing Psychophysiological Sensors to Assess Mental Workload During Web Browsing
Jimenez-Molina, A., Retamal, C., & Lira, H. (2018) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s18020458 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Effects of Individual Differences in Blocking Workplace Distractions
Mark, G. J., Czerwinski, M. P., & Iqbal, S. T. (2018) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3173574.3173666 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“Tasks that get interrupted have been shown to take longer to complete compared to tasks that are not interrupted [3, 17].”
BackgroundWickens, C. D., & Carswell, C. M. (2021) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119636113.ch5 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Interruptions and Task Transitions: Understanding Their Characteristics, Processes, and Consequences
Leroy, S., Schmidt, A. M., & Madjar, N. Y. (2020) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2017.0146 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Rainmakers: Why bad weather means good productivity.
Lee, J., Francesca Gino, B., & Staats, B. R. (2014) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0035559 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Previous studies suggest that introducing an interrupting task distracts a worker from the primary task and thus decreases the accuracy of decisions and increases error rates (Bailey and Konstan, 2006; Speier et al, 1999).”
BackgroundLiao, Q. V., Davis, M. J., Geyer, W., Muller, M., & Shami, N. S. (2016) · Designing Interactive Systems Conference · doi:10.1145/2901790.2901842 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Meanwhile, the HCI community has a long history of studying the negative influence of interruptions on task performance and user emotions [2], and especially giving it crucial consideration for technology design in enterprise [15, 38].”
BackgroundMohr, G., & Wolfram, H. (2010) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018892 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Behavioral and emotional consequences of brief delays in human–computer interaction
Szameitat, A. J., Rummel, J., Szameitat, D. P., & Sterr, A. (2009) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2009.02.004 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“…may occur and delays occurring at such task/sub-task boundaries are presumably less disruptive and disturbing than delays occurring within a task or at less fundamental sub-task boundaries (cf. Adamczk & Bailey, 2004; Bailey & Konstan, 2006; cf. Kohlisch & Kuhmann, 1997; Monk et al., 2002).”
BackgroundThe Effect of Interruptions and Breaks on Insight and Impasses: Do You Need a Break Right Now?
Beeftink, F., van Eerde, W., & Rutte, C. G. (2008) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400410802391314 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“Recently, Bailey and Konstan (2006) have confirmed both of these findings in a similar experiment. They found that interrupted individuals needed more time to complete their tasks, compared to uninterrupted individuals, and that they made twice as much errors. But not all research finds negative effects of interruptio…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialFeldman, E. R., Reid, E. M., & Mazmanian, M. (2019) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2018.0148 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Kaur, H., Williams, A. C., McDuff, D., Czerwinski, M. P., Teevan, J. B., & Iqbal, S. T. (2020) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3313831.3376817 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“, when they are in a state of flow [14], can result in lower task performance [56] and increased frustration, anxiety and annoyance [4, 23, 38, 40, 5, 49].”
BackgroundAttelia: Reducing user's cognitive load due to interruptive notifications on smart phones
Okoshi, T., Ramos, J., Nozaki, H., Nakazawa, J., Dey, A. K., & Tokuda, H. (2015) · IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications · doi:10.1109/percom.2015.7146515 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
"Transport Me Away": Fostering Flow in Open Offices through Virtual Reality
Ruvimova, A., Kim, J., Fritz, T., Hancock, M., & Shepherd, D. C. (2020) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3313831.3376724 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“There has been much attention in HCI paid to the problem of interruption [1,2,4,26–28, 34,38, 39, 53, 66] and the general”
BackgroundReducing Interruptions at Work: A Large-Scale Field Study of FlowLight
Züger, M., Corley, C., Meyer, A. N., Li, B., Fritz, T., Shepherd, D., Augustine, V., Francis, P., Kraft, N., & Snipes, W. (2017) · Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3025453.3025662 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Avula, S., Chadwick, G., Arguello, J., & Capra, R. (2018) · Conference on Human Information Interaction and Retrieval · doi:10.1145/3176349.3176380 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“negatively affect task performance [2], cognitive load [16], and emotional state [1].”
BackgroundA Survey of Attention Management Systems in Ubiquitous Computing Environments
Anderson, C., Hübener, I., Seipp, A.-K., Ohly, S., David, K., & Pejović, V. (2018) · Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive Mobile Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies · doi:10.1145/3214261 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Intelligent management of attention in ubiquitous systems may have a positive effect on human well-being [11, 51, 100, 121].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Effects of Task Difficulty and Multitasking on Performance
Adler, R. F., & Benbunan‐Fich, R. (2014) · Interacting with Computers · doi:10.1093/iwc/iwu005 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“Some studies have examined how users’ performance is impacted when receiving external interruptions (Bailey and Konstan, 2006; McFarlane, 2002; Speier et al., 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialA defeasible reasoning framework for human mental workload representation and assessment
Longo, L. (2015) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2015.1015166 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Interruptibility prediction for ubiquitous systems
Turner, L. D., Allen, S. M., & Whitaker, R. M. (2015) · ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp) · doi:10.1145/2750858.2807514 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Mobile Media Use, Multitasking and Distractibility
Levine, L. E., Waite, B. M., & Bowman, L. L. (2012) · International Journal of Cyber Behavior Psychology and Learning · doi:10.4018/ijcbpl.2012070102 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Multitasking in the military: Cognitive consequences and potential solutions
Chérif, L., Wood, V. M., Marois, A., Labonté, K., & Vachon, F. (2018) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3415 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Becker, W. J., Belkin, L. Y., Conroy, S. A., & Tuskey, S. (2021) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206319890655 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“Supporting this logic, several studies have documented increases in anxiety in response to task interruptions (Bailey & Konstan, 2006; Zijlstra, Roe, Leonora, & Krediet, 1999) and decreases in individual well-being (Zijstra et al., 1999).”
A framework for specifying and monitoring user tasks
Bailey, B. P., Adamczyk, P. D., Chang, T. Y., & Chilson, N. A. (2006) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2005.12.011 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“Bailey and Konstan (2005) and Iqbal et al.”
BackgroundSelf-citationMark, G. J., Iqbal, S. T., Czerwinski, M. P., & Johns, P. (2014) · ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) · doi:10.1145/2531602.2531673 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“A large body of prior work has explored the effects of interruption on a user’s affective state, mostly focusing on negative affect such as frustration, anxiety and annoyance caused by inopportune interruptions [1, 2, 24, 57].”
Background“I Didn’t Know I Looked Angry”: Characterizing Observed Emotion and Reported Affect at Work
Kaur, H., McDuff, D., Williams, A. C., Teevan, J. B., & Iqbal, S. T. (2022) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3491102.3517453 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Carpenter, C. R., Kaphingst, K. A., Goodman, M. S., Lin, M. J., Melson, A. T., & Griffey, R. T. (2014) · Academic Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1111/acem.12315 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Don't Bother Me. I'm Socializing!
Park, C., Lim, J., Kim, J., Lee, S.-J., & Lee, D. (2017) · ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) · doi:10.1145/2998181.2998189 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“They are known to reduce work productivity as it requires additional time and effort to resume a task once they draw attention away [1, 6, 20, 4].”
BackgroundAttention and engagement-awareness in the wild: A large-scale study with adaptive notifications
Okoshi, T., Tsubouchi, K., Taji, M., Ichikawa, T., & Tokuda, H. (2017) · IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications · doi:10.1109/percom.2017.7917856 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Past studies have been revealing several types of negative influence of interruptive notification, such as productivity [2], [3], [4], [5], [21], [22], emotional and social attribution [21], and psycho-physiological states [3].”
BackgroundYuan, F., Gao, X., & Lindqvist, J. (2017) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3025453.3025946 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Let Me Finish before I Take Over
Wintersberger, P., Riener, A., Schartmüller, C., Frison, A.-K., & Weigl, K. (2018) · International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications (AutomotiveUI) · doi:10.1145/3239060.3239085 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Magrabi, F., Li, S. Y. W., Day, R. O., & Coiera, E. W. (2010) · Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association · doi:10.1136/jamia.2009.001719 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“Baseline measures for the power calculation were based on a conservative estimate derived from the literature. For simple computer-based tasks, which included reading, counting, comprehension, and selecting tasks, errors were observed in 20% of tasks undertaken at baseline.”
MethodZüger, M., Müller, S. C., Meyer, A. N., & Fritz, T. (2018) · Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3173574.3174165 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“Yet, the timing of the interruption has a big impact on its disruptiveness [2, 7].”
BackgroundDo instant messaging interruptions help or hinder knowledge workers’ task performance?
Mansi, G. R., & Levy, Y. M. (2013) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2013.01.011 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Walter, S. R., Raban, M. Z., Dunsmuir, W. T. M., Douglas, H., & Westbrook, J. I. (2016) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2016.07.020 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
The Perpetual Work Life of Crowdworkers
Williams, A. C., Mark, G. J., Milland, K., Lank, E., & Law, E. (2019) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3359126 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Our findings speak directly to the importance of the systems’ ability to surface the right type of work and the right amount of work at the right time – all of which have been studied in prior information work settings [8, 45, 53, 103].”
BackgroundCommunication chains and multitasking
Su, N. M., & Mark, G. J. (2008) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/1357054.1357069 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“[1, 4, 16]) our data shows the consequence of interruptions on communication patterns.”
BackgroundFeldman, E. R., & Greenway, D. (2020) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601120959288 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Expert judgments for performance shaping Factors’ multiplier design in human reliability analysis
Liu, P., Qiu, Y., Hu, J., Tong, J., Zhao, J., & Li, Z. (2018) · Reliability Engineering & System Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ress.2018.12.022 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“[113] found that users committed twice the number of errors”
BackgroundWorkflow interruptions and employee work outcomes: The moderating role of polychronicity.
Pachler, D., Kuonath, A., Specht, J., Kennecke, S., Agthe, M., & Frey, D. (2018) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/ocp0000094 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Coping with Digital Wellbeing in a Multi-Device World
Roffarello, A. M., & Russis, L. D. (2021) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3411764.3445076 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Although notifcations are useful to inform users about important information such as new messages and events [40], indeed, they may also interrupt the user’s ongoing tasks, afecting users’ performances, annoyance, and anxiety [8, 12].”
BackgroundUnderstanding the Role of Places and Activities on Mobile Phone Interaction and Usage Patterns
Mehrotra, A., Müller, S. R., Harari, G. M., Gosling, S. D., Cecilia Mascolo, C., Musolesi, M., & Rentfrow, P. J. (2017) · Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive Mobile Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies · doi:10.1145/3131901 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Previous studies have explored various aspects of users’ interaction with mobile notifications [4, 6, 7, 12, 24, 29, 35].”
BackgroundCheng, X., Bao, Y., & Zarifis, A. (2020) · Information Processing & Management · doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2020.102281 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Design and evaluation of a command recommendation system for software applications
Li, W., Matejka, J., Grossman, T., Konstan, J. A., & Fitzmaurice, G. W. (2011) · ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction · doi:10.1145/1970378.1970380 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Previous research [Bailey and Konstan 2006; Cutrell et al. 2001; Cutrell, Czerwinski and Horvitz 2000; McGrenere et al. 2002] has demonstrated the harmful effects that notifications can have on a user‘s task performance.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationRecent developments in affective recommender systems
Katarya, R., & Verma, O. P. (2016) · Physica A Statistical Mechanics and its Applications · doi:10.1016/j.physa.2016.05.046 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Improving Usefulness of Automated Driving by Lowering Primary Task Interference through HMI Design
Naujoks, F., Forster, Y., Wiedemann, K., & Neukum, A. (2017) · Journal of Advanced Transportation · doi:10.1155/2017/6105087 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“They also cause affective discomfort, for example, by increasing subjectively experienced annoyance and anxiety [40, 41].”
BackgroundNot All Interruptions are Created Equal: Positive Interruptions in Healthcare
Sasangohar, F., Donmez, B., Trbovich, P., & Easty, A. (2012) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1071181312561172 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Interruptions cause increased task completion time, error rates, and job stress (e.g., Van Bergen, 1968; Cellier & Eyrolle, 1992; Czerwinski et al., 2000; Bailey & Konstan, 2006).”
BackgroundPersuasion, Interrupted: The Effect of Momentary Interruptions on Message Processing and Persuasion
Kupor, D. M., & Tormala, Z. L. (2015) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucv018 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Consequently, a great deal of research on interruptions concludes with recommendations on how to minimize them (e.g., Bailey and Konstan 2006; Speier et al. 1999).”
BackgroundKim, S., Chun, J., & Dey, A. K. (2015) · Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/2702123.2702409 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“The results of another experiment showed that when peripheral tasks involving reasoning, reading or arithmetic interrupt the execution of primary tasks, users require more time to complete the primary tasks, commit more errors, and become more annoyed and increasingly anxious than when those same peripheral tasks were…”
BackgroundElhai, J. D., Rozgonjuk, D., Alghraibeh, A. M., & Yang, H. (2021) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/0894439319858008 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“For example, using a controlled experiment, Bailey and Konstan (2006) found that computer INs resulted in more time needed to complete primary tasks, more errors committed, and greater associated annoyance and anxiety.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
- Authors
- Bailey, B. P., & Konstan, J. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bailey, Brian P.
- Venue
- Computers in Human Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2006-07
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 685-708
- ISSN
- 0747-5632 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2063748437
- Cited by
- 600
- References
- 61
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 47 · 2017: 49 · 2016: 39 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 37 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 32.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Computers in Human Behavior (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Personal Information Management and User Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Human-Automation Interaction and Safety
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Usability and User Interface Design
- Keywords
- interruptions, task performance, error rate, annoyance, anxiety, affective states, task completion time, primary task, task boundaries, presentation timing
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