Focused attention, open monitoring and automatic self-transcending: Categories to organize meditations from Vedic, Buddhist and Chinese traditions

Travis, Fred; Shear, Jonathan

doi:10.1016/j.concog.2010.01.007

Cited by 522Mindfulness and Compassion InterventionsReligion, Spirituality, and PsychologyPhilosophy and Theoretical Science

Focused attention, open monitoring and automatic self-transcending: Categories to organize meditations from Vedic, Buddhist and Chinese traditions

Travis, Fred, Shear, Jonathan·2010·Consciousness and Cognition

DOI 10.1016/j.concog.2010.01.007

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Abstract

This paper proposes a third meditation-category--automatic self-transcending--to extend the dichotomy of focused attention and open monitoring proposed by Lutz. Automatic self-transcending includes techniques designed to transcend their own activity. This contrasts with focused attention, which keeps attention focused on an object; and open monitoring, which keeps attention involved in the monitoring process. Each category was assigned EEG bands, based on reported brain patterns during mental tasks, and meditations were categorized based on their reported EEG. Focused attention, characterized by beta/gamma activity, included meditations from Tibetan Buddhist, Buddhist, and Chinese traditions. Open monitoring, characterized by theta activity, included meditations from Buddhist, Chinese, and Vedic traditions. Automatic self-transcending, characterized by alpha1 activity, included meditations from Vedic and Chinese traditions. Between categories, the included meditations differed in focus, subject/object relation, and procedures. These findings shed light on the common mistake of averaging meditations together to determine mechanisms or clinical effects.

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Meditation procedures that do not result in increases in theta, and meditation procedures with a clear lack of therapeutic goal, fall outside the definition of hypnosis.
“We have already mentioned two of these: meditation procedures that do not result in increases in theta (and there are some of these, e.g., Chiesa & Serretti, 2010; Fell, Axmacher, & Haupt, 2010; Travis & Shear, 2010), as well as meditation procedures that have a clear lack of therapeutic goal; i.e., a lack of even an implicit suggestion – meditation for meditation's sake alone.”
From Brain oscillations, hypnosis, and hypnotizability (2015) · cites this paper as Travis & Shear, 2010
It cannot be generalized that all types of meditation or mindfulness practice would result in similar clinical effects.
“However, we cannot generalize that all types of meditation or mindfulness practice would result in similar clinical effects [30].”
From A Cloud-Based Virtual Reality App for a Novel Telemindfulness Service: Rationale, Design and Feasibility Evaluation (2017) · cites this paper as [30]

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Potential self-regulatory mechanisms of yoga for psychological health
Gard, T., Noggle, J. J., Park, C. L., Vago, D. R., & Wilson, A. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00770 · Cited by 472 · see citing works
“This leads to the final meditative limb, Samadhi, which represents transcendent states of conscious awareness and absorption associated with a non-dual subject/object distinction (Josipovic, 2010; Travis and Shear, 2010).”
Background
Psychedelics, meditation, and self-consciousness
Millière, R., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Roseman, L., Trautwein, F.-M., & Berkovich-Ohana, A. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01475 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
“To address this remarkable diversity of traditions, researchers have also sought to categorize the main styles of meditation across cultural, geographical and historical contexts, based on the core goals and principles of the mental techniques involved (Lutz et al., 2008; Travis and Shear, 2010; Nash and Newberg, 2013…”
Background
Regular, brief mindfulness meditation practice improves electrophysiological markers of attentional control
Moore, A., Gruber, T., Derose, J., & Malinowski, P. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00018 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Pain attenuation through mindfulness is associated with decreased cognitive control and increased sensory processing in the brain
Gard, T., Holzel, B. K., Sack, A. T., Hempel, H., Lazar, S. W., Vaitl, D., & Ott, U. (2012) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr352 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Neural correlates of establishing, maintaining, and switching brain states
Tang, Y., Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (2012) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.05.001 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Stress management techniques: evidence-based procedures that reduce stress and promote health
Varvogli, L., & Darviri, C. (2011) · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Neural correlates of nondual awareness in meditation
Josipovic, Z. (2014) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.12261 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Focused attention, open monitoring and loving kindness meditation: effects on attention, conflict monitoring, and creativity â€“ A review
Lippelt, D. P., Hommel, B., & Colzato, L. S. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01083 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
“Moreover, Travis and Shear (2010) have pointed out a third meditation category besides FAM and OMM: the automatic self-transcending which trascends FAM and OMM through the absence of both (a) focus and (b) individual control or effort. www.frontiersin.org September 2014 | Volume 5 | Article 1083 | 1”
Background
Meditation for posttraumatic stress: systematic review and meta-analysis
Hilton, L., Maher, A. R., Colaiaco, B., Apaydin, E., Sorbero, M. E., Booth, M., Shanman, R. M., & Hempel, S. (2017) · Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy · doi:10.1037/tra0000180 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
EEG Correlates of Self-Referential Processing
Knyazev, G. G. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00264 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
“It appears that delta and theta oscillations (most prominently at frontal midline regions) correlate negatively with DMN. Increase of theta power during working memory tasks is related to inhibition of DMN regions (Scheeringa et al., 2009; Brookes et al., 2011a; Michels et al., 2012).”
BackgroundInfluential
Stress Reduction in the Secondary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: Randomized, Controlled Trial of Transcendental Meditation and Health Education in Blacks
Schneider, R. H., Grim, C. E., Rainforth, M. V., Kotchen, T., Nidich, S. I., Gaylord-King, C., Salerno, J. W., Kotchen, J. M., & Alexander, C. N. (2012) · Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes · doi:10.1161/circoutcomes.112.967406 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Experts bodies, experts minds: How physical and mental training shape the brain
Debarnot, U., Sperduti, M., Rienzo, F. D., & Guillot, A. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00280 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
“…we mainly take into account data from functional and structural neuroimaging studies without considering results from the large body of researches using electroencephalography (we address readers to some recent extensive reviews of this field, e.g., Cahn and Polich, 2006; Travis and Shear, 2010).”
Method
Prevalence and patterns of use of mantra, mindfulness and spiritual meditation among adults in the United States
Burke, A., Lam, C. N., Stussman, B. J., & Yang, H. (2017) · BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12906-017-1827-8 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Influence of meditation on anti-correlated networks in the brain
Josipovic, Z., Dinstein, I., Weber, J., & Heeger, D. J. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2011.00183 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
“…(FA), mindfulness or open monitoring (OM), and non-dual awarness (NDA) (Jha et al., 2007; Lutz et al., 2007, 2008; Austin, 2009; Josipovic, 2010; Travis and Shear, 2010). fMRI studies have reported that participants practicing FA and OM meditations exhibited larger anti-correlations between…”
Background
RelaWorld
Kosunen, I., Salminen, M., Järvelä, S., Ruonala, A., Ravaja, N., & Jacucci, G. (2016) · ACM International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (IUI) · doi:10.1145/2856767.2856796 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
“Later Travis and Shear [51] suggested a third category of automatic self-transcending.”
Background
Reduced functional connectivity between cortical sources in five meditation traditions detected with lagged coherence using EEG tomography
Lehmann, D., Faber, P. L., Tei, S., Pascual-Marqui, R. D., Milz, P., & Kochi, K. (2012) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.01.042 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
“We are aware that in other EEG measurements, different meditation techniques are known to show different characteristics (e.g. Dunn et al., 1999; Lehmann et al., 2001; Lutz et al., 2008; Travis, 2001; Travis and Shear, 2010).”
Background
Effects of the Transcendental Meditation Technique on Trait Anxiety: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials
Orme‐Johnson, D. W., & Barnes, V. A. (2013) · The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.1089/acm.2013.0204 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Training brain networks and states
Tang, Y., & Posner, M. I. (2014) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2014.04.002 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
What Is Meditation? Proposing an Empirically Derived Classification System
Matko, K., & Sedlmeier, P. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02276 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
“On the contrary, some researchers have emphasized a different mode (“automatic self-transcending”) being supposedly active in mantra meditation (Travis and Shear, 2010).”
BackgroundResult
The neuroscience of meditation: classification, phenomenology, correlates, and mechanisms
Brandmeyer, T., Arnaud Delorme, A., & Wahbeh, H. (2019) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.10.020 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Mindfulness as Attention Training: Meta-Analyses on the Links Between Attention Performance and Mindfulness Interventions, Long-Term Meditation Practice, and Trait Mindfulness
Verhaeghen, P. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01532-1 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Meditation-Based Mantram Intervention for Veterans With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Randomized Trial
Bormann, J., Thorp, S., Wetherell, J., Golshan, S., & Lang, A. J. (2013) · Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1037/a0027522 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Meditation and mindfulness in clinical practice
Simkin, D. R., & Black, N. B. (2014) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.chc.2014.03.002 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Meditation in the Higher-Education Classroom: Meditation Training Improves Student Knowledge Retention during Lectures
Ramsburg, J. T., & Youmans, R. J. (2013) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-013-0199-5 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“Focused attention meditation is thought to facilitate directing and sustaining attention on a selected object, detecting mind wandering, and reinstating directed attention (Lutz et al. 2008; Travis and Shear 2010).”
Background
Toward a unifying taxonomy and definition for meditation
Nash, J. D., & Newberg, A. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00806 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
“…are based on an attentive set characterized by an open presence and a non-judgmental awareness of sensory, cognitive and affective fields of experience in the present moment and involves a higher-order meta-awareness of ongoing mental processes” (Cahn and Polich, 2006)—in Travis and Shear (2010a).”
Influential
Defining Contemplative Science: The Metacognitive Self-Regulatory Capacity of the Mind, Context of Meditation Practice and Modes of Existential Awareness
Dorjee, D. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01788 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Consciousness and the double-slit interference pattern: Six experiments
Radin, D. I., Michel, L., Galdamez, K. M., Wendland, P. H., Rickenbach, R., & Arnaud Delorme, A. (2012) · Physics Essays · doi:10.4006/0836-1398-25.2.157 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Decreased electrophysiological activity represents the conscious state of emptiness in meditation
Hinterberger, T., Schmidt, S. N. L., Kamei, T., & Walach, H. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00099 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“Travis and Shear’s analysis of EEG correlates of their three proposed meditation states suggests that focused attention was characterized by beta and gamma activity, open monitoring by theta activity and automatic self-transcending by lower alpha activity (Travis and Shear, 2010).”
Background
The embodied mind: A review on functional genomic and neurological correlates of mind-body therapies
Muehsam, D. J., Lutgendorf, S. K., Mills, P. J., Rickhi, B., Chevalier, G., Bat, N., Chopra, D., & Gurfein, B. T. (2016) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.027 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“For reference, the reader is referred to reviews n the scope of MBTs (National Institutes of Health, 2007) and the arieties of meditation practices (Travis and Shear, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluential
Effect of Transcendental Meditation on Employee Stress, Depression, and Burnout: A Randomized Controlled Study
Elder, C. R., Nidich, S. I., Moriarty, F., & Nidich, R. (2014) · The Permanente Journal · doi:10.7812/tpp/13-102 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Duality and nonduality in meditation research
Josipovic, Z. (2010) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.016 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Non-trauma-focused meditation versus exposure therapy in veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomised controlled trial
Nidich, S. I., Mills, P. J., Rainforth, M. V., Heppner, P. S., Schneider, R. H., Rosenthal, N. E., Salerno, J. W., Gaylord‐King, C., & Rutledge, T. R. (2018) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(18)30384-5 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Brain oscillations, hypnosis, and hypnotizability
Jensen, M. P., Adachi, T., & Hakimian, S. (2015) · American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis · doi:10.1080/00029157.2014.976786 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“…two of these: meditation procedures that do not result in increases in theta (e.g., Chiesa & Serretti, 2010; Fell, Axmacher, & Haupt, 2010; Travis & Shear, 2010) and meditation procedures that have a clear lack of therapeutic goal, i.e., a lack of even an implicit suggestion—meditation…”
Background
Effects of Transcendental Meditation in Veterans of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Pilot Study
Rosenthal, J., Grosswald, S. J., Ross, R. J. M., & Rosenthal, N. E. (2011) · Military Medicine · doi:10.7205/milmed-d-10-00254 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
EEG based interpretation of human brain activity during yoga and meditation using machine learning: A systematic review
Kora, P., Meenakshi, K., Swaraja, K., Rajani, A., & Raju, M. S. (2021) · Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2021.101329 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
A Systematic Review of Transcendent States Across Meditation and Contemplative Traditions
Wahbeh, H., Sagher, A., Back, W., Pundhir, P., & Travis, F. T. (2017) · EXPLORE · doi:10.1016/j.explore.2017.07.007 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“9,31 The emphasis on the object-only approach in focused-attention meditation is to focus on the momentary nature of sensory experience and no focus on the subjective side of experience and self-related mental processes.”
Self-citation
Nondirective meditation activates default mode network and areas associated with memory retrieval and emotional processing
Xu, J., Vik, A., Groote, I. R., Lagopoulos, J., Holen, A., Ellingsen, Ø., Haberg, A. K., & Davanger, S. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00086 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“Consequently, such methods comprise a distinct style of practicing (Cahn and Polich, 2006; Ellingsen and Holen, 2008; Travis and Shear, 2010), that has previously been termed nondirective meditation, as the presence of spontaneously occurring thoughts, images, sensations, memories, and emotions is…”
Background
Frontal theta activity and white matter plasticity following mindfulness meditation
Tang, Y.-Y., Tang, R., Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (2019) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.04.004 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Toward a brain theory of meditation
Raffone, A., Marzetti, L., Gratta, C. D., Perrucci, M. G., Romani, G. L., & Pizzella, V. (2019) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.10.028 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
The effects of autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) on mood, attention, heart rate, skin conductance and EEG in healthy young adults
Engelbregt, H., Brinkman, K., van Geest, C. C. E., Irrmischer, M., & Deijen, J. B. (2022) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-022-06377-9 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“2019; Travis and Shear 2010).”
Background
A neurocognitive model of meditation based on activation likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis
Sperduti, M., Martinelli, P., & Piolino, P. (2012) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2011.09.019 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Recently Travis and Shear (2010) have classified meditation techniques according to electrophysiological correlates reported across several studies.”
Background
Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease in Adolescents and Adults through the Transcendental Meditation® Program: A Research Review Update
Barnes, V. A., & Orme‐Johnson, D. W. (2012) · Current Hypertension Reviews · doi:10.2174/157340212803530411 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Magical Flight and Monstrous Stress: Technologies of Absorption and Mental Wellness in Azeroth
Snodgrass, J. G., Lacy, M. G., Dengah, H. J. F., Fagan, J. M., & Most, D. E. (2010) · Culture Medicine and Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s11013-010-9197-4 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Changes in Autonomic Variables Following Two Meditative States Described in Yoga Texts
Telles, S., Bhat, R., Visweswaraiah, N. K., Manjunath, N. K., Kumar, S., & Subramanya, P. (2012) · The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.1089/acm.2011.0282 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Impact of meditation on emotional processing—A visual ERP study
Sobolewski, A., Holt, E., Kublik, E., & Wróbel, A. (2011) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2011.06.002 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
The Effects of Different Stages of Mindfulness Meditation Training on Emotion Regulation
Zhang, Q., Wang, Z., Wang, X., Liu, L., Zhang, J., & Zhou, R. (2019) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00208 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“Based on the previous findings and Buddhist scripture explanations that FA and OM are interrelated and have a hierarchical relationship (Travis and Shear, 2010), we reasoned that a novice should not directly practice OM before the novice practices FA because going directly to the OM stage would not be effective for be…”
Result
Differential Training Facilitates Early Consolidation in Motor Learning
Henz, D., & Schöllhorn, W. I. (2016) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00199 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Travis and Shear (2010) classify attentional processes reflected in the EEG in low- and high-frequency bands.”
Background
Issues and Perspectives in Meditation Research: In Search for a Definition
Awasthi, B. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00613 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“Further, Travis and Shear (2010) have argued for self-transcending, whereas Rao (2011) suggests passive diffused attention or “inattention” as the defining feature of meditation.”
Background
Mantra meditation for mental health in the general population: A systematic review
Lynch, J., Prihodova, L., Dunne, P. J., Carroll, Á., Walsh, C., McMahon, G., & White, B. (2018) · European Journal of Integrative Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.eujim.2018.09.010 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“While TM advocates have argued that subtle differences exist (in that the TM technique appreciates the mantra at “finer” levels in which the mantra becomes secondary in experience and ultimately disappears [9,10]), all are based upon the same fundamental principle of repeating a word or phrase to elicit a relaxation r…”
Background
Meditative analgesia: the current state of the field
Grant, J. A. (2014) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.12282 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
EEG Derived Neuronal Dynamics during Meditation: Progress and Challenges
Kaur, C., & Singh, P. B. (2015) · Advances in Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1155/2015/614723 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“These categories define a number of meditation practices [4, 5].”
BackgroundInfluential
A Critical Analysis on Characterizing the Meditation Experience Through the Electroencephalogram
Deolindo, C. S., Ribeiro, M. W., Aratanha, M. A., Afonso, R. F., Irrmischer, M., & Kozasa, E. H. (2020) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2020.00053 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Tools of the trade: theory and method in mindfulness neuroscience
Tang, Y.-Y., & Posner, M. I. (2013) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nss112 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“One reason for inconsistent findings is that most studies average measures from different stages of meditation together to determine mechanisms or effects, or compare them without identifying the stage involved (Travis and Shear, 2010).”
Background
Meditation and Its Regulatory Role on Sleep
Nagendra, R. P., Maruthai, N., & Kutty, B. M. (2012) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2012.00054 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Psychological Effects of Meditation for Healthy Practitioners: An Update
Sedlmeier, P., Loße, C., & Quasten, L. C. (2018) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0780-4 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Transcendental experiences during meditation practice
Travis, F. T. (2013) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.12316 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“These states could be called higher states in that (1) the subject/object relationship is different in these states compared to waking, sleeping, and dreaming; (2) the sense of self is more expanded in these states; and (3) the physiological patterns are distinct from those during waking, dreaming, and sleeping.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The case for metacognitive reflection: a theory integrative review with implications for medical education
Merkebu, J., Veen, M., Hosseini, S., & Varpio, L. (2024) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-023-10310-2 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“…awareness, transcendence, moral consciousness, reflexivity, and beyond (Baumgartner, 2001; Bhaskar, 2013; Bleakley, 1999; Branson, 2007; Drigas et al., 2022a; Hetzner et al., 2011; Korthagen & Vasalos, 2009; Merkebu et al., 2023; Mezi-row, 1994; Nys, 2002; Smith, 2011; Travis & Shear, 2010).”
The consciousness state space (CSS)—a unifying model for consciousness and self
Berkovich‐Ohana, A., & Glicksohn, J. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00341 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“…may persist in parallel to extrinsic stimulation if external stimulation is not sufficiently challenging (Greicius and Menon, 2004; Wilson et al., 2008), or when one attends to the activity of the intrinsic system (Christoff et al., 2009), as is the case during meditation (Travis and Shear, 2010).”
Background
Meditation and neurofeedback
Brandmeyer, T., & Arnaud Delorme, A. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00688 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Recent research suggests that complex brain activity during meditation may not be adequately described by basic EEG analyses (Travis and Shear, 2010).”
Background
Studying the default mode and its mindfulness-induced changes using EEG functional connectivity
Berkovich-Ohana, A., Glicksohn, J., & Goldstein, A. (2014) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nst153 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“The explanation for this discrepancy may lie in the meditative practice employed, as different techniques are known to show different characteristics (Dunn et al., 1999; Lutz et al., 2008; Travis and Shear, 2010).”
Method
Meditation and the Wandering Mind: A Theoretical Framework of Underlying Neurocognitive Mechanisms
Brandmeyer, T., & Arnaud Delorme, A. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620917340 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“In open-monitoring (OM) meditation practices, the meditator focuses on cultivating awareness and acceptance of what is occurring in the present moment without any predetermined focal object (Ainsworth et al., 2013; Colzato, Szapora, & Hommel, 2012; Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Travis & Shear, 2010).”
Background
A Methodological Review of Meditation Research
Thomas, J. W., & Cohen, M. M. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00074 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Nondual Awareness and Minimal Phenomenal Experience
Josipovic, Z., & Miskovic, V. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02087 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“Different degrees of effort are applied, usually decreasing with developing skill levels, though some techniques insist on a minimal effort from the start (Wallace, 2006; Travis and Shear, 2010).”
Background
Effect of meditation on emotional response: An EEG-based study
Jadhav, N., Manthalkar, R. R., & Joshi, Y. (2017) · Biomedical Signal Processing and Control · doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2017.01.008 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
The Limited Effect of Mindfulness-Based Interventions on Anxiety in Children and Adolescents: A Meta-Analysis
Odgers, K., Dargue, N., Creswell, C., Jones, M. P., & Hudson, J. L. (2020) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-020-00319-z · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“2011) and Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (Linehan 1993), were excluded, as were other established forms of meditation, such as Transcendental Meditation (Travis and Shear 2010).”
Background
The Self and its Disorders
Gallagher, S. (2023) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198873068.001.0001 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Experiencing meditation – Evidence for differential effects of three contemplative mental practices in micro-phenomenological interviews
Przyrembel, M., & Singer, T. (2018) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2018.04.004 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Mindfulness and cognitive functions: Toward a unifying neurocognitive framework
Raffone, A., & Srinivasan, N. (2017) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0654-1 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“…form (without an explicit single object of awareness) as associated with open monitoring (Lutz et al. 2008; Raffone and Srinivasan 2010), automatic selftranscending (Travis and Shear 2010), and non-dual awareness (Josipovic 2012) forms of meditation (see also Raffone and Srinivasan 2009).”
Background
Effects of Lifestyle Modification on Telomerase Gene Expression in Hypertensive Patients: A Pilot Trial of Stress Reduction and Health Education Programs in African Americans
Duraimani, S., Schneider, R. H., Randall, O. S., Nidich, S. I., Xu, S., Ketete, M., Rainforth, M. A., Gaylord‐King, C., Salerno, J. W., & Fagan, J. B. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142689 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“During the practice, it has been reported that ordinary thinking processes settle down and a distinctive wakeful hypometabolic state characterized by neural coherence and physiological rest is achieved [29,33,34].”
Background
A Cloud-Based Virtual Reality App for a Novel Telemindfulness Service: Rationale, Design and Feasibility Evaluation
Cikajlo, I., Cizman Staba, U., Vrhovac, S., Larkin, F., & Roddy, M. (2017) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/resprot.6849 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“However, we cannot generalize that all types of meditation or mindfulness practice would result in similar clinical effects [30].”
Background
Default mode network activation and Transcendental Meditation practice: Focused Attention or Automatic Self-transcending?
Travis, F. T., & Parim, N. (2016) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2016.08.009 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Based on analysis of the EEG research literature, Transcendental Meditation has been placed by some authors in the category of Automatic SelfTranscending (Travis & Shear, 2010).”
Self-citation
Effect of Heartfulness cleaning and meditation on heart rate variability
Arya, N. K., Singh, K. K., Malik, A., & Mehrotra, R. (2018) · Indian Heart Journal · doi:10.1016/j.ihj.2018.05.004 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Theta and Alpha Oscillations in Attentional Interaction during Distracted Driving
Wang, Y., Jung, T., & Lin, C. (2018) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00003 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Increased frontal alpha activation has been correlated with internally directed attention (Travis and Shear, 2010).”
Background
What Do Meditators Do When They Meditate? Proposing a Novel Basis for Future Meditation Research
Matko, K., Ott, U., & Sedlmeier, P. (2021) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-021-01641-5 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Although some researchers have pointed out and described a great variety of meditation techniques (Dahl et al., 2015; Travis & Shear, 2010), as of this writing we know of no compilation that is truly comprehensive.”
Background
Long-term meditation training induced changes in the operational synchrony of default mode network modules during a resting state
Fingelkurts, A. A., Fingelkurts, A. A., & Kallio-Tamminen, T. (2015) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-015-0743-4 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“been repeatedly shown to be involved in these experiences (Lutz et al. 2008; Davidson 2010; Travis and Shear 2010; Mascaro et al. 2013; Li et al. 2014).”
BackgroundMethod
What it means to be Zen: Marked modulations of local and interareal synchronization during open monitoring meditation
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“The two groups reported similar effortless experiences, consistent with prior results between novice and expert TM subjects [73,76].”
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Cramer, H., Sibbritt, D. W., Park, C. L., Adams, J., & Lauche, R. (2017) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2017.07.013 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
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“Meditation practices in this category are associated with alpha1 (8–10 Hz) EEG (Travis et al., 2010; Travis & Shear, 2010).”
Self-citation
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“The practice used in the studies on transcendental meditation (Travis et al. 2010; Yamamoto et al. 2006) would be classified as automatic self-transcending meditation in another classification scheme (Travis and Shear 2010a).”
BackgroundMethod
Mindfulness and Psychologic Well-Being: Are They Related to Type of Meditation Technique Practiced?
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“Although this type of meditation involves the repetition of a mantra, it is said to be marked by the absence of both a focus and individual control, making it a distinct category.(16) Because MM is explicitly aimed at enhancing mindfulness, one may expect practitioners of this type of meditation to report a higher deg…”
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“TM is the repetition of a sound or phrase while disregarding everyday thoughts and does not encourage belief systems of merging with something greater [70–72] while Buddhist practices are often focused on maintaining awareness of bodily sensations and thoughts [73,74].”
Background
Mindfulness-based interventions for substance use disorders
Goldberg, S. B., Pace, B. T., Griskaitis, M., Willutzki, R., Skoetz, N., Thönes, S., Zgierska, A. E., & Rösner, S. (2021) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd011723.pub2 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
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“…that expand on the perception of the external object or scene per se, and might mirror the differences between Open Monitoring (i.e., awareness observation) and Focused Attention (i.e., event or object-driven concentration) in IN-I meditation documented in previous studies (Travis and Shear, 2010).”
MethodResult
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“There are many forms of meditation practice such as mindfulness meditation, concentrative meditation, transcendental meditation, Buddhist meditation, and others (Cahn and Polich, 2006; Travis and Shear, 2010).”
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“TM is a traditional form of meditation described as an “automatic self-transcending technique, which produces a unique state of brain integration” (Travis & Shear, 2010).”
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Duality and nonduality in meditation research
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8.1 THREE RANDOMIZED EXPERIMENTS ON THE LONGITUDINAL EFFECTS OF THE TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION TECHNIQUE ON COGNITION
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States of Consciousness Beyond Waking, Dreaming and Sleeping: Perspectives from Research on Meditation Experiences
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Changes in the Electrical Activity of the Brain in the Alpha and Theta Bands during Prayer and Meditation
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FUNZIONI COGNITIVE, CONTROLLO EMOTIVO E STATO DI COSCIENZA IN MEDITAZIONE: CONFRONTO PSICO-FISOLOGICO TRA MEDITAZIONE ANALITICA E OPEN-MONITORING
Marzetti, F. (2018) · Electronic Theses and Dissertations Repository (University of Pisa)

Authors: Travis, F., & Shear, J.
Affiliations: Virginia Commonwealth University (US)
Corresponding author: Travis, Fred
Venue: Consciousness and Cognition
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2010-12
Volume: 19
Issue: 4
Pages: 1110-1118
ISSN: 1053-8100 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2010.01.007
OpenAlex: W2164848263
Cited by: 522
References: 84
Citations by year: 2026: 26 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 57 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 32 · 2017: 35 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 33 · 2014: 32 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 29
FWCI: 26.38
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Consciousness and Cognition (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
VCU Scholars Compass (Virginia Commonwealth University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Philosophy and Theoretical Science
Keywords: meditation, focused attention, EEG frequency bands, Tibetan Buddhist meditation, Buddhist meditation
MeSH terms: Attention, Awareness, Brain, Buddhism, Cognition, Electroencephalography, Empathy, Female, Frontal Lobe, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Object Attachment, Regional Blood Flow, Religion and Psychology, Hinduism, Tibet, Meditation, Brain Waves

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Focused attention, open monitoring and automatic self-transcending: Categories to organize meditations from Vedic, Buddhist and Chinese traditions

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