The person in the mirror: using the enfacement illusion to investigate the experiential structure of self-identification
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How do we acquire a mental representation of our own face? Recently, synchronous, but not asynchronous, interpersonal multisensory stimulation (IMS) between one's own and another person's face has been used to evoke changes in self-identification (enfacement illusion). We investigated the conscious experience of these changes with principal component analyses (PCA) that revealed that while the conscious experience during synchronous IMS focused on resemblance and similarity with the other's face, during asynchronous IMS it focused on multisensory stimulation. Analyses of the identified common factor structure revealed significant quantitative differences between synchronous and asynchronous IMS on self-identification and perceived similarity with the other's face. Experiment 2 revealed that participants with lower interoceptive sensitivity experienced stronger enfacement illusion. Overall, self-identification and body-ownership rely on similar basic mechanisms of multisensory integration, but the effects of multisensory input on their experience are qualitatively different, possibly underlying the face's unique role as a marker of selfhood.
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Participants with lower interoceptive sensitivity (IS) are more susceptible to the RHI and to the modulation of self-other boundaries in response to multisensory stimulation.
“Tsakiris and colleagues reported that participants with lower IS are more susceptible to the RHI [55] and to the modulation of self-other boundaries in response to multisensory stimulation [56,57], possibly reflecting lower precision-weighting of interoceptive prediction errors.”
From Interoceptive inference, emotion, and the embodied self (2013) · cites this paper as [56]
Synchronous, but not asynchronous, visuotactile stimulation elicits illusory feelings of ownership over the other's face.
“As in the RHI, synchronous, but not asynchronous, visuotactile stimulation elicits illusory feelings of ownership over the other's face [53].”
From Changing bodies changes minds: Owning another body affects social cognition (2015) · cites this paper as [53]
Interoceptive awareness, measured by a heartbeat detection task, is negatively correlated with the intensity of the RHI.
“Interestingly, a recent study has shown that interoceptive awareness, measured by a heartbeat detection task, is negatively correlated with the intensity of the RHI.”
From Bodily ownership and self-location: Components of bodily self-consciousness (2013) · cites this paper as Tajadura-Jimenez et al., 2012
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The Enfacement Illusion Is Not Affected by Negative Facial Expressions
Beck, B., Cardini, F., Làdavas, E., & Bertini, C. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0136273 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
I Am There … but Not Quite: An Unfaithful Mirror That Reduces Feelings of Ownership and Agency
O’Sullivan, N., de Bézenac, C. E., Piovesan, A., Cutler, H., Corcoran, R., Fenyvesi, D., & Bertamini, M. (2017) · Perception · doi:10.1177/0301006617743392 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Enfacing a female reduces the gender–science stereotype in males
Zhang, X., Hommel, B., & Ma, K. (2021) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-021-02241-0 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Palazzo, C. C., Leghi, B. E., & Garcia, R. W. D. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14030450 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Assess and rehabilitate body representations via (neuro)robotics: An emergent perspective
Risso, G., & Bassolino, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Neurorobotics · doi:10.3389/fnbot.2022.964720 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Multisensory contributions to skin‐cosmetic product interactions
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Malleability of the self: electrophysiological correlates of the enfacement illusion
Bufalari, I., Sforza, A. L., Russo, F. D., Mannetti, L., & Aglioti, S. M. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-38213-y · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Jenkinson, P. M., & Preston, C. (2017) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2016.12.007 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
A Natural Human-Drone Embodied Interface: Empirical Comparison With a Traditional Interface
Vincenzo, M. D., Palini, F., Marsico, M. D., Borghi, A. M., & Baldassarre, G. (2022) · Frontiers in Neurorobotics · doi:10.3389/fnbot.2022.898859 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Affective judgement of social touch on a hand associated with hand embodiment
Fahey, S., Santana, C., Kitada, R., & Zheng, Z. Z. (2019) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021819842785 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Multisensory stimulation with other-race faces and the reduction of racial prejudice
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The influence of age on the rubber hand illusion
Ferracci, S., & Brancucci, A. (2019) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2019.05.004 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Dagsdóttir, L. K., Skyt, I., Vase, L., Baad‐Hansen, L., Castrillón, E., & Svensson, P. J. (2015) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-015-4330-9 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
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Exploring Virtual Doppelgangers as Movement Models to Enhance Voluntary Imitation
Kammler-Sücker, K. I., Löffler, A., Kleinböhl, D., & Flor, H. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2021.3120795 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Shimizu, K., Naruse, S., Nishida, J., & Kasahara, S. (2023) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3544548.3580853 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Provenzano, L., Ciccarone, S., Porciello, G., Petrucci, M., Cozzani, B., Cotugno, A., & Bufalari, I. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32834 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Kullmann, P., Schell, T., Menzel, T., Botsch, M., & Latoschik, M. E. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2025.3549887 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Lush, P., Seth, A. K., & Dienes, Z. P. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/w67xc · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Myths, imagination and reality: constructing tourist attractions with local knowledge
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Panagiotopoulou, E., Crucianelli, L., Lemma, A., & Fotopoulou, A. (2021) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218211050318 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Deltort, N., Swendsen, J. D., Bouvard, M. P., Cazalets, J., & Amestoy, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.946066 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Keeping up with ourselves: Multimodal processes underlying body ownership across the lifespan
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Five‐Month‐old Infants' Discrimination of Visual–Tactile Synchronous Facial Stimulation
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Look at me now! Enfacement illusion over computer-generated faces
Rocca, S. L., Gobbo, S., Tosi, G., Fiora, E., & Daini, R. (2023) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2023.1026196 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Coster, L. D., Sánchez-Herrero, P., Aliaga, C., Otaduy, M. Á., López‐Moreno, J., & Tajadura‐Jiménez, A. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-70856-8 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationRepresentation and Perception of the Body in Space
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Portingale, J., Krug, I., & Butler, D. L. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1433596 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
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Shalev, I. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01630 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Saving Face: Shared Experience and Dialogue on Social Touch, in Playful Smart Public Space
Lancel, K., Maat, H., & Brazier, F. M. T. (2019) · Gaming media and social effects · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-9765-3_9 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
- Authors
- Tajadura-Jiménez, A., Longo, M. R., Coleman, R., & Tsakiris, M.
- Affiliations
- Birkbeck, University of London (GB)
- Royal Holloway University of London (GB)
- Venue
- Consciousness and Cognition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-12
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1725-1738
- ISSN
- 1053-8100 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3759963
- OpenAlex
- W2014518691
- Cited by
- 150
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 13
- FWCI
- 4.74
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Consciousness and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BIROn (Birkbeck, University of London) (acceptedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council (ES/G000719/1)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Multisensory perception and integration
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Keywords
- enfacement illusion, self-identification, face perception, multisensory integration, body ownership, interoceptive sensitivity, selfhood, subjective experience
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Body Image, Face, Female, Humans, Illusions, Male, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Self Concept, Sex Factors, Visual Perception, Touch Perception
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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