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Cited by 384Social and Intergroup PsychologyVirtual Reality Applications and ImpactsSocial Robot Interaction and HRI

Changing bodies changes minds: Owning another body affects social cognition

Open access
Maister, Lara, Slater, Mel, Sanchez-Vives, Maria V., Tsakiris, Manos·2015·Trends in Cognitive Sciences
DOI 10.1016/j.tics.2014.11.001
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Abstract

Research on stereotypes demonstrates how existing prejudice affects the way we process outgroups. Recent studies have considered whether it is possible to change our implicit social bias by experimentally changing the relationship between the self and outgroups. In a number of experimental studies, participants have been exposed to bodily illusions that induced ownership over a body different to their own with respect to gender, age, or race. Ownership of an outgroup body has been found to be associated with a significant reduction in implicit biases against that outgroup. We propose that these changes occur via a process of self association that first takes place in the physical, bodily domain as an increase in perceived physical similarity between self and outgroup member. This self association then extends to the conceptual domain, leading to a generalization of positive self-like associations to the outgroup.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review argues that experimentally induced ownership over an outgroup body—differing in race, age, gender, or size—can reduce implicit social biases and increase bodily resonance with that outgroup. It proposes that these changes occur through self-association: bodily illusions increase perceived physical similarity between self and outgroup, which then generalizes positive self-like associations to the outgroup.

Key findings

  • Ownership over an outgroup body can be induced regardless of pre-existing implicit bias; in one study, light-skinned Caucasian participants experienced ownership over a dark-skinned rubber hand and showed a significant decrease in negative implicit attitudes toward dark skin, correlated with the strength of ownership.
  • In immersive virtual reality, light-skinned participants who embodied a dark-skinned avatar showed a decrease in implicit racial bias against Black individuals, significantly greater than those who embodied a White avatar; a purple-skinned avatar control did not produce bias change despite strong body ownership.
  • An enfacement illusion with an outgroup member’s face, induced by two minutes of multisensory stimulation, increased the Visual Remapping of Touch effect up to the level normally associated with a same-race individual.
  • Embodying an avatar representing a 4-year-old child produced a bias toward associating the self with child-like compared to adult-like categorizations on an IAT, suggesting a role for self-association in attitude change.

Methods

  • Theoretical review and synthesis of experimental psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and virtual reality studies; no new empirical data are reported.
  • Reviews bodily illusions used to manipulate body ownership: Rubber Hand Illusion, Enfacement Illusion, and Full Body Illusion/immersive virtual reality.
  • Discusses measures including the Implicit Association Test (IAT), Visual Remapping of Touch, and self-face recognition, and proposes a mechanism based on associative learning and predictive coding.

Limitations

  • The paper states that a key challenge for future work is to elucidate the neural mechanisms involved, and lists outstanding questions about the time course and persistence of effects, underlying neural mechanisms, behavioural consequences in daily life, and whether effects extend to non-perceptual social groups such as political or religious groups.
  • Evident from the text: as a review/opinion article, it presents no primary data, no meta-analysis, and no numerical effect sizes or statistical details for the cited findings; the proposed self-association mechanism is a theoretical account rather than a directly tested causal model.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.tics.2014.11.001

Cites

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

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  • Premisecitation

    Observing an individual of a different race experiencing a specific bodily state, such as touch or pain, leads to reduced sharing of that bodily state.

    “For example, when we observe an individual of a different race to ourselves experiencing a specific bodily state, such as touch or pain, we show a reduced sharing of that bodily state.”
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    Diminished neural resonance with the racial outgroup directly correlates with participants' negative implicit racial biases.

    “Furthermore, this diminished neural resonance with the racial outgroup has been found to directly correlate with participants' negative implicit racial biases [3].”
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    Activation of shared body representations is modulated by whether the person being observed is an ingroup or an outgroup member.

    “Interestingly, the activation of shared body representations is modulated by whether the person being observed is an ingroup or an outgroup member.”
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  • Premisecitation

    Ownership of an outgroup body is associated with a significant reduction in implicit biases against that outgroup.

    “Ownership of an outgroup body has been found to be associated with a significant reduction in implicit biases against that outgroup.”
    • Also stated in: § Concluding Remarks · boosted
      “Overall, an intriguing and consistent pattern of results has emerged from independent research groups, whereby changes in the experience of ownership over an outgroup body of different race results in significant reductions of the levels of implicit bias against that outgroup .”
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  • Premisecitation

    Bodily illusions can induce ownership over a body different from one's own with respect to gender, age, or race.

    “In a number of experimental studies, participants have been exposed to bodily illusions that induced ownership over a body different to their own with respect to gender, age or race.”
    • Also stated in: § From body ownership to social cognition: Constraints and consequences · boosted
      “Several studies, using a variety of methods, successfully induced a sense of body ownership over bodies of different race- [9,10,[12][13][14]27,28,29], age- [11], size- [11,30,31,32] and gender-groups [25].”
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    Premisecitation

    Viewing a face being touched enhances the perception of touch on one's own face, but this Visual Remapping of Touch effect is not present when the observed face belongs to a racial outgroup member.

    “For example, viewing a face being touched enhances the perception of touch on one's own face, but this effect, known as the Visual Remapping of Touch, is not present when the observed face belongs to a racial outgroup member [5].”
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    Interpretationcitation

    Changes in the mental representation of one's own body affect the perceived similarity between one's own body and that of an outgroup, resulting in significant changes in implicit biases.

    “Taken together, the findings show that changes in the mental representation of one's own body affect the perceived similarity between one's own body and that of an outgroup, resulting in significant changes in implicit biases.”
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    Premisecitation

    Implicit racial biases can be measured behaviourally using an implicit association task and can be seen at the neural level in distinct patterns of brain activity.

    “These implicit racial biases can be measured behaviourally using an implicit association task (IAT: See Glossary [15]), but also can be seen at the neural level in the form of distinct patterns of brain activity [2].”
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    Premisecitation

    Shared body representations are thought to form the fundamental basis of empathy and our understanding of others' emotions and actions.

    “These shared body representations are thought to form the fundamental basis of empathy and our understanding of others' emotions and actions.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    The proposed mechanism is that changes occur via a process of self-association that first takes place in the physical, bodily domain as an increase in perceived physical similarity between self and outgroup member, and then extends to the conceptual domain, leading to a generalization of positive self-like associations to the outgroup.

    “We propose that these changes occur via a process of self-association that first takes place in the physical, bodily domain as an increase in perceived physical similarity between self and outgroup member.This self-association then extends to the conceptual domain, leading to a generalization of positive self-like associations to the outgroup.”
    • Also stated in: § Illusions of self-resemblance may cause a generalisation of self-like associations to an outgroup · plain
      “We argue that these changes occur via a process of self-association, first in the physical, bodily domain as an increase in perceived physical similarity between self and outgroup member, and then in the conceptual domain, leading to a generalization of positive selflike associations to the outgroup.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Bodily resonance can afford a unique, first-person understanding of the experiences of others and is central to a number of social processes including intention understanding, empathy, and emotion recognition.

    “Evidence now suggests that this bodily resonance (see Glossary) can afford us a unique, first-person understanding of the experiences of others and is central to a number of social processes [7] including intention understanding [19], empathy [20], and emotion recognition [21].”
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    Premisecitation

    Participants show reduced vicarious activation of the motor cortex when observing actions performed by a racial outgroup member compared to an ingroup member, and show decreased neural and motor responses when viewing racial outgroup members in pain.

    “In the motor domain, participants show reduced vicarious activation of the motor cortex when observing actions performed by a racial outgroup member as compared to an ingroup member [4,8], and show decreased neural and motor responses when viewing racial outgroup members in pain [3,6].”
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    Premisecitation

    Perception of bodily states in others can activate similar bodily states in the self, and representations of our own bodies and those of others can partially overlap.

    “The perception of bodily states in others can activate similar bodily states in the self, and this is taken as evidence that our representations of our own bodies and those of others can partially overlap.”
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    Premisecitation

    Existing prejudice affects the way we process outgroups.

    “Research on stereotypes demonstrates how existing prejudice affects the way we process outgroups.”
    • Also stated in: § Body representations of self and other. · plain
      “Until recently, research in this area has focused on how existing social bias and prejudice affect the way we process outgroup members [3][4][5][6], rather than investigating the potential malleability of our ingroup/outgroup classifications.”
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    Premisecitation

    The reduction in sharing bodily states with a racial outgroup is modulated by implicit social attitudes towards that racial group; the more negatively biased we are, the less overlap between representations of their bodies and our own.

    “Furthermore, this reduction is modulated by our implicit social attitudes towards that racial group; the more negatively biased we are against members of that race, the less overlap between our representations of their bodies and our own [see below; [3][4]8].”
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    Premisecitation

    People tend to show implicit biases towards members of their own race and against those of other races, even when they do not hold any explicitly biased attitudes.

    “For example, we tend to show implicit biases towards members of our own race and against those of other races, even when we don't hold any explicitly biased attitudes.”
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    After synchronous multisensory stimulation on the face, participants rated the other's face as more attractive, more physically similar to their own, and were more likely to conform to the other's opinions.

    “After synchronous multisensory stimulation on the face (see Enfacement Illusion, Box 1), participants rated the other's face as more attractive, more physically similar to their own, and they were also more likely to conform to the other's opinions [33].”
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    Premisecitation

    The classical conditioning literature has long posited that associative learning of likes and dislikes is based on perceptual similarity, and that this can occur outside of awareness.

    “In support of this, the classical conditioning literature has long posited that associative learning of likes and dislikes are based on perceptual similarity, and that this can occur outside of awareness [39,40].”
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    Premisecitation

    The enfacement illusion improved recognition of the other's emotions, with a specific increase in sensitivity to fearful facial expressions.

    “Effects were also seen in the emotional domain; the enfacement illusion improved recognition of the other's emotions, with a specific increase in sensitivity to fearful facial expressions [34].”
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    Premisecitation

    When the different body depicted an outgroup person, acquired ownership did not depend on pre-existing levels of implicit outgroup bias; participants experienced ownership over another's body regardless of their levels of negative implicit attitudes towards the other's social group.

    “Furthermore, in the case where the different body depicted an outgroup person, the acquired ownership did not depend on pre-existing levels of implicit outgroup bias; participants experienced ownership over another's body regardless of their levels of negative implicit attitudes towards the other's social group [13].”
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    Interpretationcitation

    The manipulations used to induce bodily illusions involve highly salient multisensory cues that are strongly predictive of body ownership, and thus may override top-down modulations by social attitudes.

    “However, the manipulations used to induce bodily illusions involve highly salient multisensory cues which are strongly predictive of body ownership, and thus may override top-down modulations by social attitudes [9][10][11][12][13].”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    The age study demonstrated a role of self-association in attitude change, whereas previous research had investigated more generic positive or negative associations with the embodied social group.

    “This study was notable because it demonstrated a role of the self-association in attitude change, whereas previous research [9,10] had investigated more generic positive or negative associations with the embodied social group.”
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    Premisecitation

    In the first study to test whether body ownership changes affect implicit biases, participants showed a significant decrease in negative implicit attitudes towards dark skin after a rubber hand illusion with a dark-skinned hand, and this decrease correlated with the strength of ownership experienced over the other-race hand.

    “Importantly, participants showed a significant decrease in negative implicit attitudes towards dark skin, which correlated with the strength of ownership experienced over the other-race hand.”
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    Premisecitation

    After experiencing an enfacement illusion, participants accepted morphed photos of faces with a higher percentage of the other as depicting themselves, suggesting that the participants' stored representations of their own faces were altered to incorporate aspects of the other person.

    “In a more objective quantification of a comparable effect, participants accepted morphed photos of faces with a higher percentage of the other as depicting themselves after experiencing an enfacement illusion, suggesting that the participants' stored representations of their own faces were altered to incorporate aspects of the other person [26,35,36].”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Changes in perceived interpersonal similarity play a causal role in this mechanism.

    “We propose that changes in perceived interpersonal similarity play a causal role in this mechanism, and it is now timely to elucidate how exactly this interpersonal bodily similarity may modulate activity in the 'mirror system'.”
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    Premisecitation

    Evaluative conditioning has been shown to extend to social stimuli; individuals rapidly and unintentionally generalize affective processing to individuals who look physically similar.

    “This process of evaluative conditioning has been shown to extend to social stimuli; individuals rapidly and unintentionally generalize affective processing to individuals who look physically similar [41,42].”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Because of a newly established physical similarity between self and outgroup, the conceptual representations of self and outgroup also become linked; via evaluative generalization, the positive evaluations associated with the self-concept extend to the embodied outgroup.

    “We propose that, because of a newly established physical similarity between self and outgroup, the conceptual representations of self and outgroup also become linked.Via a process of evaluative generalization, the positive evaluations associated with the self-concept now extend to the embodied outgroup.”
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    Premisecitation

    Watching a rubber hand being stroked synchronously with one's own unseen hand causes the rubber hand to be attributed to one's own body, to feel like it's my hand.

    “Watching a rubber hand being stroked synchronously with one's own unseen hand causes the rubber hand to be attributed to one's own body, to”
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    Premisecitation

    The networks involved in implicit racial bias serve two related yet distinct functions: the amygdala generates a rapid, automatic affective reaction to other-race stimuli, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex control and regulate the expression of this affective reaction according to explicitly desired behaviours.

    “The networks involved in implicit racial bias are already known [2], and appear to serve two related yet distinct functions.The first function, likely to be subserved by the amygdala, generates a rapid, automatic affective reaction to other-race stimuli, and the second, subserved by the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex, controls and regulates the expression of this”
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    Premisecitation

    Synchronous, but not asynchronous, visuotactile stimulation elicits illusory feelings of ownership over the other's face.

    “As in the RHI, synchronous, but not asynchronous, visuotactile stimulation elicits illusory feelings of ownership over the other's face [53].”
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    Premisecitation

    Previously, implicit racial biases have been considered relatively difficult to change.

    “Previously, implicit racial biases have been considered relatively difficult to change [43].”
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    Interpretationcitation

    The outgroup becomes associated not only with the self-concept but also with positive concepts more generally.

    “This results in the outgroup not only being associated with the self-concept, as already shown by [11], but also with positive concepts more generally, as shown by [9,10].”
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    Premisecitation

    The virtual hand illusion persists through radical transformations such as extensive elongation of the arm or change in the virtual hand position with respect to the real one.

    “This illusion persists through radical transformations such as extensive elongation of the arm [51] or change in the virtual hand position [52] with respect to the real one.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    In this way, the consistency within the multimodal self-representation is maintained.

    “In this way, the consistency within the multimodal self-representation is maintained.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    In bodily illusions, viewing touch on a different body evokes a sensation of touch on one's own body, generating bottom-up error signals from unimodal sensory systems.

    “In the case of bodily illusions, viewing touch on a different body evokes a sensation of touch on one's own body, and this generates bottom-up error signals from unimodal sensory systems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Perceptual learning processes update the body representation to first induce a sense of ownership over the new body and next to incorporate perceptual features of the other's body, in order to minimise error and maintain a continual sense of 'mineness'.

    “Perceptual learning processes will update the body representation to first induce a sense of ownership over the new body and next to incorporate perceptual features of the other's body, in order to minimise this error and maintain a continual sense of 'mineness'.”
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    Premisecitation

    On the predictive coding account, one's body is processed in a probabilistic manner as the most likely to be 'me', given prior knowledge about our bodies and incoming sensory information.

    “On this account, one's body is processed in a probabilistic manner as the most likely to be”
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    The predictive coding approach can be applied to the whole information processing hierarchy.

    “An explanatory strength of the predictive coding approach is that it can be applied to the whole information processing hierarchy [e.g.57], as it argues for complimentary hierarchical top-down and bottom-up processes.”
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    Premisecitation

    Participants who embodied a Black avatar showed a decrease in their implicit biases against Black individuals, which was significantly greater than for those who embodied a White avatar.

    “Participants who embodied a Black avatar showed a decrease in their implicit biases against Black individuals, which was significantly greater than for those who embodied a White avatar.”
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    On a predictive coding account, these different levels of representation continuously interact, as prediction errors, when left unexplained at one level, need to be processed and eliminated at a higher level of the hierarchy.

    “On a predictive coding account, these different levels of representation continuously interact [55,56], as prediction errors, when left unexplained at one level ,need to be processed and eliminated at a higher level of the hierarchy.”
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    Premisecitation

    Predictive Coding as a unifying theory of brain function provides a plausible framework for understanding the cognitive basis of self-recognition.

    “However, a recent interest in Predictive Coding as a unifying theory of brain function has provided a plausible framework for understanding the cognitive basis of self-recognition [55].”
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  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The illusion of ownership over the rubber hand does not occur when the rubber hand is stroked asynchronously with respect to the subject's own hand.

    “The illusion of ownership over the rubber hand does not occur when the rubber hand is stroked asynchronously with respect to the subject's own hand”
1 of 1

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Viewing the body affects social cognition.

    “For instance, viewing the body increases tactile perception [119], modulates interpersonal tactile responses [120,121], affects social cognition [122,123], and concept processing [55].”

    From First-person view of one’s body in immersive virtual reality: Influence on episodic memory (2019) · cites this paper as [122]

  • It has been shown that embodiment as another person can lead to the internalization of the qualities associated to that person.

    “It has been shown that embodiment as another person can lead to the internalization of the qualities associated to that person as mentioned in the introduction – that changing bodies, changes minds – for example Maister, et al.9.”

    From An experimental study of a virtual reality counselling paradigm using embodied self-dialogue (2019) · cites this paper as [9]

  • When we have an illusion of body ownership over a body different to our own, this can change aspects of our perception, attitudes, behaviours and self-identity.

    “Several recent results have pointed towards the likelihood that when we have an illusion of body ownership over a body different to our own this can change aspects of our perception, attitudes, behaviours and self-identity1819.”

    From Conversations between self and self as Sigmund Freud—A virtual body ownership paradigm for self counselling (2015) · cites this paper as [18]

  • An explanation offered for the reduction of implicit racial bias after embodiment of light-skinned participants in a dark-skinned body is based on the idea of the embodiment generating a perceptual similarity between the self and the outgroup.

    “An explanation offered for the reduction of implicit racial bias after embodiment of light-skinned participants in a dark-skinned body is based on the idea of the embodiment generating a perceptual similarity between the self and the outgroup18.”

    From Conversations between self and self as Sigmund Freud—A virtual body ownership paradigm for self counselling (2015) · cites this paper as [18]

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References 61 · Cited by 384

Authors
Maister, L., Slater, M., Sanchez-Vives, M. V., & Tsakiris, M.
Affiliations
  • Royal Holloway University of London (GB)
  • Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ES)
ORCID
Venue
Trends in Cognitive Sciences
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2015-01
Volume
19
Issue
1
Pages
6-12
ISSN
1364-6613 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.tics.2014.11.001
OpenAlex
W1996077504
Cited by
384
References
61
Citations by year
2026: 33 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 40 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 15
FWCI
6.21
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Trends in Cognitive Sciences (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • European Research Council (227985, ERC-2010-StG-262853)
  • FP7 Information and Communication Technologies (248620)
  • H2020 Future and Emerging Technologies (257695)
  • Seventh Framework Programme
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
Keywords
body ownership, bodily illusions, prejudice reduction, outgroup perception, self-association, physical similarity, social cognition, stereotypes, embodiment
MeSH terms
Group Processes, Humans, Illusions, Prejudice, Self Concept, Social Perception, User-Computer Interface

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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