An initiation–termination two-phase model of worrying
Abstract
Researchers have identified many factors that are associated with worrying, ranging from a verbal/left hemisphere bias to intolerance of uncertainty. This paper describes an initiation-termination (IT) two-phase model of worrying that attempts to comprehensively put together the many different pieces of the puzzle. The first phase of the model concerns the development of perceptions of threat, which initiates the process of worrying. The strength of a perceived threat is influenced by the perceived probability and cost of an undesirable future outcome, along with danger/risk salience. The second phase concerns acceptance of the prospect of an uncertain future threat, which terminates the process of worrying. Factors that play roles in this second phase include beliefs about the value of worrying, the desire for certainty, a perseverative-iterative style, and a sense of closure regarding one's role in trying to prevent or plan for the threat. The factors that play roles in these two phases are discussed, as are the implications of the model for conceptualizing, treating and conducting research on worrying.
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Self-citationMood-as-input hypothesis and perseverative psychopathologies
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A Bi-Factor Approach to Modeling the Structure of Worry and Rumination
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Self-citationSelf-conscious emotions in worry and generalized anxiety disorder
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Self-citationPsychological pressure and compounded errors during elite-level tennis
Harris, D., Vine, S. J., Eysenck, M. W., & Wilson, M. (2021) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.101987 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Adolescents’ Daily Worries and Risky Behaviors: The Buffering Role of Support Seeking
Arbel, R., Perrone, L., & Margolin, G. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2016.1169536 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Different Patterns of Attention Bias in Worry and Rumination
Hur, J., Gaul, K., & Berenbaum, H. (2019) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-018-09993-4 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationHow are triggers for repetitive negative thinking organized? A relational frame analysis
Gil-Luciano, B., Calderón-Hurtado, T., Tovar, D., Sebastián, B., & Ruiz, F. (2019) · Psicothema · doi:10.7334/psicothema2018.133 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Rumination has been conceptualized as repetitive and passive thinking about the causes, consequences, and meaning of unattained goals (Martin & Tesser, 1996), and worry as repetitive thoughts focused on issues that generate uncertainty or possible negative future outcomes (Berenbaum, 2010).”
Peril, prudence and planning as risk, avoidance and worry
Gagne, C., & Dayan, P. (2021) · Journal of Mathematical Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jmp.2021.102617 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Humans perseverate on punishment avoidance goals in multigoal reinforcement learning
Sharp, P. B., Russek, E. M., Huys, Q. J. M., Dolan, R. J., & Eldar, E. (2022) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.74402 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Relations between Working Memory Performance and Worry
Bredemeier, K., & Berenbaum, H. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.5127/jep.032212 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationWorry about crime in Europe: A model-based small area estimation from the European Social Survey
Buil‐Gil, D., Moretti, A., Shlomo, N., & Medina, J. (2019) · European Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1177/1477370819845752 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Functional and dysfunctional fear of COVID-19: a classification scheme
Solymosi, R., Jackson, J., Pósch, K., Yesberg, J. A., Bradford, B., & Kyprianides, A. (2021) · Crime Science · doi:10.1186/s40163-020-00137-2 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Dash, S. R., & Davey, G. C. L. (2011) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.12.002 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Systematic information processing style and perseverative worry
Dash, S. R., Meeten, F., & Davey, G. C. L. (2013) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.08.007 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Repetitive Negative Thought and Executive Dysfunction: An Interactive Pathway to Emotional Distress
Madian, N., Bredemeier, K., Heller, W., Miller, G. A., & Warren, S. L. (2018) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-018-9966-x · Cited by 20 · see citing works
So, S. H., Sun, X., Chan, G. H. K., Chan, I. H. H., Chiu, C., Chan, S. K. W., Wong, W. Y. E., Leung, P. W. L., & Chen, E. Y. H. (2020) · Schizophrenia Research Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.scog.2020.100176 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Fear of Crime and the Psychology of Risk
Jackson, J., & Gouseti, I. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-5690-2_660 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Psychological inflexibility mediates the effects of self-efficacy and anxiety sensitivity on worry
Ruiz, F. J. (2014) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2014.3 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Serotonin transporter andBDNFpolymorphisms interact to predict trait worry
Bredemeier, K., Beevers, C. G., & McGeary, J. E. (2014) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2014.909928 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Ruiz, F. J., Monroy-Cifuentes, A., & Suárez-Falcón, J. C. (2018) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.34.3.300281 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Fear of Crime: An Entry to the Encyclopedia of Theoretical CriminologyPreprint
Jackson, J., & Gouseti, I. (2012) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Ruiz, F. J. (2014) · Anales de Psicologia · doi:10.6018/analesps.30.3.150651 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Introduction Worry consists of repetitive thoughts that are experienced as unpleasant and concerning an uncertain future outcome that is considered undesirable (Berenbaum, 2010).”
BackgroundHarris, D., Vine, S. J., Eysenck, M. W., & Wilson, M. (2019) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2019.1643459 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
What if we have too many models of worry and GAD?
Freeston, M. H. (2023) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465822000649 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Harris, D., Arthur, T., Vine, S. J., Rahman, H. R. A., Han, F., Liu, J., & Wilson, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1182269 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Kleszewski, E., & Otto, K. (2023) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-023-10029-y · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Letkiewicz, A. M., Cochran, A. L., & Cisler, J. M. (2020) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.10.046 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Effective Connectivity Between Broca’s Area and Amygdala as a Mechanism of Top-Down Control in Worry
Guha, A., Spielberg, J. M., Lake, J. I., Popov, T. G., Heller, W., Yee, C. M., & Miller, G. A. (2019) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702619867098 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Flores, L. E., & Berenbaum, H. (2014) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2014.33.8.673 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationInflated Responsibility in Worry and Obsessive Thinking
Sugiura, Y., & Fisak, B. J. (2019) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1007/s41811-019-00041-x · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Jackson, J., & Gouseti, I. (2014) · The Encyclopedia of Theoretical Criminology · doi:10.1002/9781118517390.wbetc130 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
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A test of the initiation–termination model of worry
Berenbaum, H., Chow, P. I., Flores, L. E., Schoenleber, M. L., Thompson, R. J., & Most, S. B. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.1177/2043808718778965 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationWorry and perceived threat of proximal and distal undesirable outcomes
Bredemeier, K., Berenbaum, H., & Spielberg, J. M. (2012) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.01.001 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationFlaxman, P. E., Stride, C., Newman, S., & Ménard, J. (2022) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12410 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The functions of worry and its relation to performance in controllable and uncontrollable situations
Ștefan, S., & David, D. (2012) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2012.722075 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Development of the Perth Adolescent Worry Scale (PAWS)
Hunter, S. C., Houghton, S., Kyron, M., Lawrence, D., Page, A. C., Chen, W., & Macqueen, L. (2022) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-021-00853-6 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Hitchcock, P. F., & Frank, M. J. (2024) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2024.101356 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Sugiura, Y., & Sugiura, T. (2015) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2015.05.015 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Fear of Crime and the Psychology of RiskPreprint
Jackson, J., & Gouseti, I. (2012) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2141537 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
A Novel Measure of Real-Time Perseverative Thought
Stade, E. C., Cohen, R. T., Loftus, P., & Ruscio, A. M. (2021) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026211038017 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Bredemeier, K., & Berenbaum, H. (2020) · doi:10.1002/9781119189909.ch3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationHow theory guides measurement: examples from the study of public attitudes toward crime and policing
Jackson, J., & Kuha, J. (2015) · London School of Economics and Political Science Research Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Worry about victimization, crime information processing, and social categorization biases
Gouseti, I. (2018) · Legal and Criminological Psychology · doi:10.1111/lcrp.12130 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Spectrum of Persisting Memories and Pseudomemories, Distortions, and Psychopathology
Linden, M. (2013) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-398393-0.00001-8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Schipper, P., Henckens, M. J. A. G., Borghans, B., Hiemstra, M., Kozicz, T., & Homberg, J. R. (2017) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2017.02.044 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Identification and comparison of pandemic-to-symptom networks of South Korea and the United States
Park, M., Seo, D., Kim, J. G., Lee, G., McReynolds, L. S., Amsel, L., Yang, H., Kim, Y.-H., Han, S. H., Park, S. H., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1161200 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Stewart, S., Houghton, S. J., & Macqueen, L. (2025) · Pediatric Reports · doi:10.3390/pediatric17020028 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Chow, P. I., Berenbaum, H., & Wang, C. (2015) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000288 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationHuang, A. B., Berenbaum, H., & McKee, G. B. (2021) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2021.2015429 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationMetacognitive, Emotional, and Avoidance Predictors of Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Sugiura, Y. (2017) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2017.84041 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
A bifactor approach to modeling the structure of repetitive thinking: Replication and extension
Castro, A. A., Hur, J., & Berenbaum, H. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111472 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationFunction, Threat and Closure in the Fear of CrimePreprint
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Small area estimation in criminological research : theory, methods, and applications
Buil‐Gil, D. (2020) · Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Liu, M., Wei, H., Wang, Z., Zhang, S., Qu, W., Zhang, B., Long, Z., Zhou, P., Gao, L., Meng, S., et al. (2025) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.70156 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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Attention and executive functioning deficits associated with dimensions of anxiety and depression
Bredemeier, K. (2012) · Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A COMPUTATIONAL MODEL OF TEMPORAL DYNAMICS FOR ANXIETY IN INTERVIEWEE MENTAL STATE
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Threatened by Violence: Affective and Cognitive Reactions to Violent VictimizationPreprint
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Construal Level Theory and Fear of CrimePreprint
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The Determinants of Student Loan Repayment Worry
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A Biobehavioral Framework of Worry for Nursing Application
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Carolina Pinto Inverno da Piedade
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Attentional and affective mechanisms in worry and rumination
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Eficacia y procesos de cambio de una intervención psicológica en practicantes de psicología clínica
Dereix-Calonge, I. (2019)
Neural Mechanisms of Mindful Disengagement from WorryPreprint
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Functional and Dysfunctional Fear of COVID-19: A Classification SchemePreprint
Solymosi, R., Jackson, J., Pósch, K., Yesberg, J. A., Bradford, B., & Kyprianides, A. (2020) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/2kfs6
Worry About Guest Mistreatment and Endorsement of COVID-19 Safety Policies
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Catastrophizing and meaning-making after stressful life experiences
Sarigu, G., & Pike, A. (2026) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.252344
- Authors
- Berenbaum, H.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- Corresponding author
- Berenbaum, Howard
- ORCID
- Berenbaum, Howard
- Venue
- Clinical Psychology Review
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-12
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 962-975
- ISSN
- 0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2062225049
- Cited by
- 88
- References
- 126
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 0.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Assessments
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Keywords
- worry, anxiety, threat perception, intolerance of uncertainty, risk salience
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Anxiety Disorders, Attention, Fear, Goals, Humans, Internal-External Control, Judgment, Models, Psychological, Probability Learning, Risk-Taking, Social Perception, Uncertainty
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