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Relations among posttraumatic stress disorder, comorbid major depression, and HPA function: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Exposure to traumatic stress is associated with increased risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alterations of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) function. Research linking traumatic stress with HPA function in PTSD has been inconsistent, however, in part due to (a) the inclusion of trauma-exposed individuals without PTSD (TE) in control groups and (b) a failure to consider comorbid major depressive disorder (MDD) and moderating variables. This meta-analysis of 47 studies (123 effect sizes, N=6008 individuals) revealed that daily cortisol output was lower for PTSD (d=-.36, SE=.15, p=.008) and PTSD+MDD (d=-.65, SE=.25, p=.008) groups relative to no trauma controls (NTC); TE and NTC groups did not differ significantly from each other. Afternoon/evening cortisol was lower in TE (d=-.25, SE=.09, p=.007) and PTSD (d=-.27, SE=.12, p=.021) groups and higher in PTSD+MDD groups (d=.49, SE=.24, p=.041) relative to NTC. Post-DST cortisol levels were lower in PTSD (d=-.40, SE=.12, p<.001), PTSD+MDD (d=-.65, SE=.14, p<.001), and TE groups (d=-.53, SE=.14, p<.001) relative to NTC. HPA effect sizes were moderated by age, sex, time since index event, and developmental timing of trauma exposure. These findings suggest that enhanced HPA feedback function may be a marker of trauma-exposure rather than a specific mechanism of vulnerability for PTSD, whereas lower daily cortisol output may be associated with PTSD in particular.
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“Dysfunction of the HPA axis and blunted cortisol response has been found in adults with PTSD [11,12].”
From Biological Embedding of Early-Life Adversity and a Scoping Review of the Evidence for Intergenerational Epigenetic Transmission of Stress and Trauma in Humans (2023) · cites this paper as [11]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“The compounded effect of concerns regarding contracting the virus, the psychological impact of being ‘locked down’, combined with worries about employment may lead to anxiety, depression and/or post‐traumatic stress symptomology (Morris et al., 2012).”
From Living through lockdown: A qualitative exploration of individuals' experiences in the UK. (2022) · cites this paper as Morris et al., 2012
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“abnormally low baseline levels of plasma cortisol are typically observed in this disorder [173]”
From Sleep and REM sleep disturbance in the pathophysiology of PTSD: the role of extinction memory (2015) · cites this paper as [173]
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“a disorder that also shows the above neuroendocrine abnormalities [161, 172, 173] as well as neurocognitive changes [249, 250], emergent psychosocial stressors [251], and genetic predispositions [252].”
From Sleep and REM sleep disturbance in the pathophysiology of PTSD: the role of extinction memory (2015) · cites this paper as [173]
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“We also found abnormally low cortisol levels in trauma survivors, corroborating prior work47.”
From Elevated brain cannabinoid CB1 receptor availability in post-traumatic stress disorder: A positron emission tomography study (2013) · cites this paper as [47]
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Wahbeh, H., Goodrich, E., Goy, E., & Oken, B. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22255 · Cited by 97
“When examined cross-sectionally, CAR is usually noted to be lower in people with PTSD (Chida & Steptoe, 2008; Klaassens, Giltay, Cuijpers, van Veen, & Zitman, 2012; Morris et al., 2012).”
Mohammadi, A. B., Torbati, M., Farajdokht, F., Sadigh‐Eteghad, S., Fazljou, S. M. B., Vatandoust, S. M., Golzari, S. E., & Mahmoudi, J. (2019) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2019.03.020 · Cited by 91
Reductions in cortisol associated with primary care brief mindfulness program for veterans with PTSD
Bergen-Cico, D., Possemato, K., & Pigeon, W. (2014) · Medical Care · doi:10.1097/mlr.0000000000000224 · Cited by 84
“Whereas other studies have found both higher diurnal cortisol output and higher CAR among individuals with a history of trauma compared with those without, particularly among people with comorbid depression.(10,25,26) Research has noted that the variability in biological response to PTSD is associated with a person’s…”
BackgroundAlexander, N., Kirschbaum, C., Wankerl, M., Stauch, B. J., Stalder, T., Steudte-Schmiedgen, S., Muehlhan, M., & Miller, R. (2018) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.01.020 · Cited by 90
Salivary Cortisol Lower in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Wahbeh, H., & Oken, B. (2013) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.21798 · Cited by 85
Ryan, J., Chaudieu, I., Ancelin, M.-L., & Saffery, R. (2016) · Epigenomics · doi:10.2217/epi-2016-0083 · Cited by 85
Longitudinal Patterns of Cortisol Regulation Differ in Maltreated and Nonmaltreated Children
Doom, J. R., Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2014) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2014.08.006 · Cited by 98
Role of Leptin in Mood Disorder and Neurodegenerative Disease
Zou, X., Zhong, L., Zhu, C., Zhao, H., Zhao, F., Cui, R., Gao, S., & Li, B. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.00378 · Cited by 85
Zuj, D. V., & Norrholm, S. D. (2018) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.08.014 · Cited by 89
“A metaanalysis conducted by Morris et al. (2012), however, found that PTSD Box 3 Clinical vignette: Return of Fear.”
Justice, N. J., Huang, L., Tian, J.-B., Cole, A., Pruski, M., Hunt, A. J., Flores, R., Zhu, M. X., Arenkiel, B. R., & Zheng, H. (2015) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3333-14.2015 · Cited by 81
Consolidative mechanisms of emotional processing in REM sleep and PTSD
Murkar, A., & Koninck, J. D. (2018) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2018.03.001 · Cited by 87
Developmental programming of the HPA axis and related behaviours: epigenetic mechanisms
Matthews, S. G., & McGowan, P. O. (2019) · Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/joe-19-0057 · Cited by 85
Wingenfeld, K., Whooley, M. A., Neylan, T. C., Otte, C., & Cohen, B. E. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.10.023 · Cited by 89
Genetics of glucocorticoid regulation and posttraumatic stress disorder -what do we know?
Castro-Vale, I., van Rossum, E. F. C., Machado, J. C., Mota-Cardoso, R., & Carvalho, D. (2016) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.02.005 · Cited by 85
Increased Nociceptive Sensitivity and Nociceptin/Orphanin FQ Levels in a Rat Model of PTSD
Zhang, Y., Gandhi, P. R., & Standifer, K. M. (2012) · Molecular Pain · doi:10.1186/1744-8069-8-76 · Cited by 82
“Since chronic hypocortisolism has been reported in many PTSD sufferers [42,43], the effect of SPS on the stress hormone, CORT, was measured in serum from SPS and control rats euthanized on day 9, 14 or 28 (Figure 6).”
BackgroundHypothalamus and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Review
Raise‐Abdullahi, P., Meamar, M., Vafaei, A. A., Alizadeh, M., Dadkhah, M., Shafia, S., Ghalandari-Shamami, M., Naderian, R., Samaei, A., & Rashidy‐Pour, A. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13071010 · Cited by 84
“Then, it declines during the day (diurnal cortisol slope) and reaches its lowest in sleep [70].”
BackgroundLahti‐Pulkkinen, M., Eriksson, J. G., Heinonen, K., Kajantie, E., Lahti, J. M. T., Wahlbeck, K., Tuovinen, S., Pesonen, A., Mikkonen, M., Osmond, C., et al. (2014) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291714001998 · Cited by 82
“…(Vreeburg et al. 2010; Stetler & Miller, 2011; Carvalho Fernando et al. 2012), anxiety disorders (Ipser et al. 2013), post-traumatic stress disorder (Morris et al. 2012; Patel et al. 2012), and borderline personality disorder (Carrasco et al. 2007; Carvalho Fernando et al. 2012; Ruocco et al.…”
BackgroundRausch, J., Gäbel, A., Nagy, K., Kleindienst, N., Herpertz, S. C., & Bertsch, K. (2015) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.02.002 · Cited by 75
Yildirim, B. O., & Derksen, J. J. L. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.04.009 · Cited by 81
“, 2008), which may in due time lead to a compensatory down regulation of the HPA-axis stimulatory CRH receptors or upregulation of the feedback-providing glucocorticoid receptors in the pituitary to counterbalance chronic allostatic states (De Bellis, 2002; Klaassens et al., 2012; Morris et al., 2012; Wilkinson and Go…”
Backgroundvon Majewski, K., Kraus, O., Rhein, C., Lieb, M., Erim, Y., & Rohleder, N. (2023) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-023-02331-7 · Cited by 82
Rodriguez, K. E., Bryce, C. I., Granger, D. A., & O’Haire, M. E. (2018) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.04.026 · Cited by 77
“Recent meta-analyses investigating the relationship between PTSD and cortisol output have found that PTSD is significantly associated with lower morning cortisol output (Boggero et al., 2017; Morris et al., 2012).”
BackgroundEmotional and psychological trauma in refugees arriving in Germany in 2015
Ullmann, E., Barthel, A., Taché, S., Bornstein, A., Licinio, J., & Bornstein, S. R. (2015) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2015.164 · Cited by 74
Cordero, M. I., Moser, D. A., Manini, A., Suardi, F., Sancho-Rossignol, A., Torrisi, R., Rossier, M. F., Ansermet, F., Dayer, A. G., Rusconi-Serpa, S., et al. (2017) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2017.02.007 · Cited by 72
“Additionally, PTSD patients most typically present a blunted cortisol-response to stress that is possibly due to a strong negative feedback loop (Morris et al., 2012; Yehuda, 2009).”
BackgroundFrijling, J. L., van Zuiden, M., Nawijn, L., Koch, S. B. J., Neumann, I. D., Veltman, D. J., & Olff, M. (2015) · Journal of Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1111/jne.12300 · Cited by 74
Tiwari, A., & Gonzalez, A. (2018) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2018.01.006 · Cited by 71
Glucocorticoids and the Brain after Critical Illness
Hill, A. R., & Spencer-Segal, J. L. (2021) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/endocr/bqaa242 · Cited by 79
Pietrzak, R. H., Naganawa, M., Huang, Y. H., Corsi-Travali, S., Zheng, M., Stein, M. B., Henry, S. E., Lim, K., Ropchan, J. R., Lin, S.-F., et al. (2014) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.1221 · Cited by 72
RetractedOld Friends, immunoregulation, and stress resilience
Langgartner, D., Lowry, C. A., & Reber, S. O. (2018) · Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00424-018-2228-7 · Cited by 76
Folic acid prevents depressive-like behavior induced by chronic corticosterone treatment in mice
da Rosa, P. B., Ribeiro, C. M., Bettio, L. E. B., Colla, A. R. D. S., Lieberknecht, V., Moretti, M., & Rodrigues, A. L. S. (2014) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2014.10.003 · Cited by 72
Giummarra, M. J., Cameron, P. A., Ponsford, J., Ioannou, L., Gibson, S. J., Jennings, P. A., & Georgiou-Karistianis, N. (2017) · Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation · doi:10.1007/s10926-016-9642-5 · Cited by 68
“the nervous system to habituate to stress diminishes over the lifespan, especially in the context of PTSD and depression [38].”
BackgroundZhang, Y., Simpson‐Durand, C., & Standifer, K. M. (2014) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bph.12701 · Cited by 68
“Our previous data demonstrated hypocortisolism at day 28, but not day 9 and 14, after initiation of SPS, which is consistent with many clinical findings (Meewisse et al., 2007; Morris et al., 2012).”
ResultMohamed, A. Z., Cumming, P. D., Srour, H., Gunasena, T., Uchida, A., Haller, C. N., & Nasrallah, F. A. (2018) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2018.05.016 · Cited by 66
“One possible cause for amyloid presence could be the stress-related changes in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis (Morris et al., 2012).”
BackgroundLeistner, C., & Menke, A. (2018) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.01.023 · Cited by 69
Grizzell, J. A., Iarkov, A., Holmes, R., Mori, T., & Echeverrı́a, V. (2014) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2014.03.047 · Cited by 65
Zeng, B., Zhao, J., Zou, L., Yang, X., Zhang, X., Wang, W., Zhao, J., & Chen, J. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.03.022 · Cited by 65
Jergović, M., Bendelja, K., Savić Mlakar, A., Vojvoda, V., Aberle, N., Jovanovic, T., Rabatić, S., Sabioncello, A., & Vidović, A. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00049 · Cited by 63
Ladwig, K., Brockhaus, A. C., Baumert, J., Lukaschek, K., Emeny, R. T., Kruse, J., Codd, V., Häfner, S., Albrecht, E., Illig, T., et al. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064762 · Cited by 65
“Interestingly, depression and depressed mood/exhaustion as major psychopathological conditions contributing to the clinical picture of PTSD [50] additionally did not weaken the association between PTSD and TL.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Morris, M. C., Compas, B. E., & Garber, J.
- Affiliations
- Meharry Medical College (US)
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Morris, Matthew C.
- Venue
- Clinical Psychology Review
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-06
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 301-315
- ISSN
- 0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3340453
- OpenAlex
- W2158809703
- Cited by
- 466
- References
- 173
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 42 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 36 · 2016: 40 · 2015: 28 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 4.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Vanderbilt Institute for Clinical and Translational Research
- Georgia Clinical and Translational Science Alliance
- Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, India
- Commercializations Promotion Agency for R and D Outcomes
- National Institutes of Health
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (R01HM069940)
- Institute for Clinical and Translational Research, University of Wisconsin, Madison
- National Institute of Mental Health (T32 MH 18921, RC1MH088329, R01MH068391, T32MH018921, R01MH069940, R01MH64735, F31MH084425, R01MH064735)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA017805)
- National Center for Research Resources (G12RR003032, KL2RR024977, TL1RR024978, UL1RR024975)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Keywords
- post-traumatic stress disorder, major depressive disorder, comorbidities, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, cortisol, trauma exposure, diurnal cortisol rhythm, sex differences, age differences, time since trauma
- MeSH terms
- Circadian Rhythm, Depressive Disorder, Major, Major Depressive Disorder, Dexamethasone, Female, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Male, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic
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