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Meal and Snack Patterns Are Associated with Dietary Intake of Energy and Nutrients in US Adults
Abstract
Objective This study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that specific meal and snack patterns are associated with selected nutrient intakes in US adults.Design Using the 24-hour dietary recall from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, meal and snack patterns were described in relation to nutrient intakes.Subjects The study included US adults aged 20 years or older (n=15,978).Statistical analyses performed All statistical analyses accounted for the survey design and sample weights. Linear regression analyses controlled for confounding factors, including energy intakes. Wald F tests were used for determination of significance between means of nutrient intakes by daily eating frequency or meal pattern groups.Results Daily eating frequency was positively related to carbohydrate, folic acid, vitamin C, calcium, magnesium, iron, potassium, and fiber intakes and inversely related to protein, total fat, cholesterol, and sodium intakes. Meal patterns were further categorized into the five most commonly reported meal and snack combinations by population percentages including breakfast (B), lunch (L), dinner (D), and > or =2 snacks (S) (31.6%); B, L, D and 1 S (15.4%); B, D and > or =2 S (13.1%); B, L, D (8.3%); and L, D and > or =2 S (7.6%). Groups reporting B, L, D and 1 S and B, L, D and > or =2 S had the highest intakes of all micronutrients examined except cholesterol, vitamin B-6, and sodium. Breakfast skippers (L, D and > or =2 S) had the lowest intakes of all micronutrients examined except sodium.Conclusions Findings from this cross-sectional survey suggest that meal and snack patterns may be markers for nutrient intakes and therefore diet quality. Complete nutrient intakes should be considered in investigations of meal patterns and health outcomes.
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In the citing paper
“Meal patterns were mostly participant-identified( 15 , 23 , 45 – 48 , 52 , 53 , 57 , 66 , 69 , 70 , 75 , 77 , 78 , 82 ), although these studies varied in the additional criteria used to determine an individual EO, meal and/or snack, and their treatment of beverages.”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [52]
In the citing paper
“However, only thirteen of these examined more than one micronutrient( 23 , 30 , 46 , 47 , 52 , 64 – 71 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [52]
In the citing paper
“For example, eleven studies( 23 , 45 – 47 , 52 , 66 , 69 , 75 , 78 , 80 , 82 ) applied no additional criteria, whereas in other studies, EO were delineated using 15-min time intervals( 57 , 70 , 77 ), a 30-min interval( 53 ), a 45-min interval plus a 50 kcal (210 kJ) energy criterion( 15 ) and a 59-min interval (applied to meals only)( 48 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [52]
In the citing paper
“In these studies, a higher eating frequency was also associated with higher nutrient densities of folate, vitamin C and Fe( 52 , 80 ), and Ca and K( 52 ).”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [52]
In the citing paper
“Adjustment for multiple important sociodemographic and lifestyle-related confounders( 52 ) and exclusion of energy misreporters( 80 ) did not attenuate the significance of the results in these two studies.”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [52]
In the citing paper
“Two large population-based studies, one in US adults( 52 ) and the other in Swedish adults( 80 ), found that those who ate six or more times per d had higher intakes of carbohydrate and fibre but lower intakes of fat and protein compared with adults who ate once or twice per d or less than three times per d, respectively.”
From Understanding meal patterns: definitions, methodology and impact on nutrient intake and diet quality (2015) · cites this paper as [52]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kerver, J. M., Yang, E. J., Obayashi, S., Bianchi, L., & Song, W. O.
- Affiliations
- Michigan State University (US)
- Honam University (KR)
- Corresponding author
- Song, Won O.
- Venue
- Journal of the American Dietetic Association
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2006-01
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 46-53
- ISSN
- 0002-8223 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2012615500
- Cited by
- 232
- References
- 21
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 12.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of the American Dietetic Association (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Dietary Effects on Health
- Keywords
- meal patterns, meal frequency, nutrient intake, breakfast skipping, diet quality, micronutrient intake, macronutrient intake, sodium intake, cholesterol intake, energy intake, adults
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Energy Intake, Cross-Sectional Studies, Diet, Dietary Carbohydrates, Dietary Fats, Dietary Fiber, Dietary Proteins, Eating, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Nutrition Surveys, Time Factors, United States, Linear Models, Micronutrients
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