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Cited by 744Neural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentFunctional Brain Connectivity Studies

Adolescent Neurodevelopment

Open access
Spear, Linda Patia·2013·Journal of Adolescent Health
DOI 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.05.006PMC PMC3982854
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Abstract

PURPOSE: The purpose of this article is to outline notable alterations occurring in the adolescent brain, and to consider potential ramifications of these developmental transformations for public policy and programs involving adolescents. METHODS: Developmental changes in the adolescent brain obtained from human imaging work are reviewed, along with results of basic science studies. RESULTS: Adolescent brain transformations include both progressive and regressive changes that are regionally specific and serve to refine brain functional connectivity. Along with still-maturing inhibitory control systems that can be overcome under emotional circumstances, the adolescent brain is associated with sometimes elevated activation of reward-relevant brain regions, whereas sensitivity to aversive stimuli may be attenuated. At this time, the developmental shift from greater brain plasticity early in life to the relative stability of the mature brain is still tilted more toward plasticity than seen in adulthood, perhaps providing an opportunity for some experience-influenced sculpting of the adolescent brain. CONCLUSIONS: Normal developmental transformations in brain reward/aversive systems, areas critical for inhibitory control, and regions activated by emotional, exciting, and stressful stimuli may promote some normative degree of adolescent risk taking. These findings have a number of potential implications for public policies and programs focused on adolescent health and well-being.

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Crossref · 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.05.006

Cites

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Claims the paper makes

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  • Premisereasoning

    The relevance of simple mammalian models of adolescence is aided by considerable across-species similarities in behavior and biology between humans and other mammals.

    “Although the human brain and the behavior it supports is far more complex than that of other species, relevance of research using simple mammalian models of adolescence is aided by considerable across-species similarities in behavior and biology seen between humans and other mammalian species.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    Across-species similarities support the suggestion that certain adolescent neurobehavioral characteristics are partly tethered to biological roots embedded in the evolutionary past.

    “These across-species similarities support the suggestion that certain neurobehavioral characteristics of adolescence may be tethered in part by biological roots embedded in the evolutionary past (see 18).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] Spear, 1997, Neurobehavioral abnormalities following exposure to drugs of abuse during development

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  • Premisereasoning

    Dissecting causal relationships and the morphological and molecular underpinnings of age differences requires approaches largely unavailable with imaging but more amenable to animal models of adolescence.

    “Dissecting causal relationships and the precise morphological and molecular underpinnings of observed age differences typically require approaches and levels of analyses largely unavailable with imaging, but more amenable to study using animal models of adolescence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisenone given

    The adolescent brain sometimes shows elevated activation of reward-relevant regions.

    “Along with still maturing inhibitory control systems that can be overcome under emotional circumstances, the adolescent brain is associated with sometimes elevated activation of reward-relevant brain regions, whereas sensitivity to aversive stimuli may be attenuated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Interpretationnone given

    Adolescent brain development involves both progressive and regressive changes that are regionally specific and refine functional connectivity.

    “Adolescent brain transformations include both progressive and regressive changes that are regionally specific and serve to refine brain functional connectivity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 4
  • May combine two claims. 36

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Scanner space and movement constraints limit task-related responses, making it difficult to relate imaging findings to the social and emotionally arousing situations in which adolescents often take risks.

    “Yet, space and movement constraints limit task-related responses possible within scanners, making it challenging to relate these findings to the social and emotionally arousing situations in which adolescents often engage in risky behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Brain development involves both expansion and regression, with many more neurons and synapses produced than are ultimately retained.

    “Brain development is a mix of expansion and regression. Many more brain cells specialized for processing and transmitting information (neurons) and their synaptic connections are produced than will ultimately be retained (19; 20).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [19] Oppenheim, 1991, Cell death during development of the nervous system, Annu Rev Neurosci source

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    • cites [20] Huttenlocher, 1997, Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex, J Comp Neurol source

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    Premisenone given

    Inhibitory control systems are still maturing during adolescence and can be overcome under emotional circumstances.

    “Along with still maturing inhibitory control systems that can be overcome under emotional circumstances, the adolescent brain is associated with sometimes elevated activation of reward-relevant brain regions, whereas sensitivity to aversive stimuli may be attenuated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    MRI and other imaging technologies are valuable for detailing brain region size and connectivity at different ages and for indexing relative changes in regional activation during tasks.

    “Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and other imaging technologies have proved valuable for detailing size of (3; 4) and connectivity across (5; 6) brain regions at different ages, as well as for indexing relative changes in regional activation patterns during performance of target risk-taking, decision-making or other tasks (see 7 for review).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [3] Lenroot, 2006, Brain development in children and adolescents: Insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging, Neurosci Biobehav Rev source

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    • cites [4] Shaw, 2006, Intellectual ability and cortical development in children and adolescents, Nature source

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    • cites [5] Asato, 2010, White matter development in adolescence: A DTI study, Cereb Cortex source

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    Premisecitation

    The basics of brain structure and function arose millions of years ago, and the relative timing of regional brain development has been evolutionarily conserved.

    “The basics of brain structure and function arose millions of years ago, and the relative timing of regional brain development have been evolutionarily conserved as well (8).”
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    • cites [8] Allman, 2000

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    Premisecitation

    Human adolescents and other species share behavioral proclivities including elevated peer-directed social interactions, occasional increases in fighting with parents, increases in novelty-seeking, sensation-seeking and risk-taking, and greater per-occasion alcohol use.

    “Common behavioral proclivities seen in human adolescents and their counterparts in other species include elevations in peer-directed social interactions along with occasional increases in fighting with parents (e.g., 9; 10; 11), increases in novelty-seeking, sensation-seeking and risk-taking (12; 13; 14; 15), and greater per occasion alcohol use (e.g., 16; 17).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [9] Csikszentmihalyi, 1977, The ecology of adolescent activity and experience, J Youth Adolesc source

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    • cites [10] Primus, 1989, Pubertal-related changes influence the development of environment-related social interaction in the male rat, Dev Psychobiol source

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    • cites [11] Steinberg, 1989, Pubertal maturation and parent-adolescent distance: An evolutionary perspective

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    Premisecitation

    Brain development is incomplete at birth, with maturation continuing through childhood and adolescence and some age-related changes into adult life.

    “Development of the brain is far from complete at the time of birth, with maturation continuing through childhood and adolescence, and even some age-related changes in brain organization and function (including the generation of modest numbers of brain cells) into adult life (1, for review).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] de Graaf-Peters, 2006, Ontogeny of the human central nervous system: What is happening when?, Early Hum Dev source

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    Premisecitation

    Synapses are energetically costly, and declines in their numbers likely contribute to increases in brain efficiency during adolescence, reflected by declines in brain energy utilization.

    “Synapses are energetically costly and declines in their numbers likely contribute to the increases in brain efficiency seen during adolescence, reflected by the declines in brain energy utilization seen through adolescence in humans and other species (22; 23).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [22] Chugani, 1996, Neuroimaging of developmental nonlinearity and developmental pathologies

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    • cites [23] Tyler, 1942, The respiration of the developing brain, Am J Physiol source

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    Premisecitation

    Not all adolescent brain changes are regressive; some neurons continue to grow processes and establish new synaptic connections.

    “Not all brain changes during adolescence are regressive, with some neurons continuing to grow processes and establish new synaptic connections (see 1, for review).”
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    • cites [1] de Graaf-Peters, 2006, Ontogeny of the human central nervous system: What is happening when?, Early Hum Dev source

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    Premisecitation

    Increases in network cohesion may contribute to developmental changes in brain activation, with activation in task-relevant regions often becoming less diffuse and more focal with development.

    “Such increases in network cohesion may contribute to developmental changes in patterns of brain activation, with activation in task-relevant regions often becoming less diffuse and more focal (distinct) with development (31).”
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    • cites [31] Durston, 2006, A shift from diffuse to focal cortical activity with development, Dev Sci source

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    Premisecitation

    In some reward-relevant areas during adolescence, up to 50% of some types of dopamine receptors are lost, whereas in other areas ongoing dopamine activity may increase 2-7 fold.

    “As examples of these marked transformations, in some reward-relevant areas there is a loss of up to 50% of some types of receptors that are necessary to respond to DA, whereas in other areas ongoing levels of DA activity may increase 2-7 fold during adolescence (39; 40).”
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    • cites [39] Tarazi, 2000, Comparative postnatal development of dopamine D(1), D(2), and D(4) receptors in rat forebrain, Int J Dev Neurosci source

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    • cites [40] Andersen, 2002, Changes in the second messenger cyclic AMP during development may underlie motoric symptoms in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Behav Brain Res source

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    Premisenone given

    Cortical development proceeds in waves, with gray matter thinning occurring well before adolescence in sensory and motor regions but continuing throughout adolescence in prefrontal and other frontal cortical regions implicated in advanced cognitive functions.

    “Cortical development generally proceeds in “waves”, with the timing of gray matter thinning occurring well prior to adolescence in cortical regions involved in basic sensory and motor function, whereas thinning continues throughout adolescence in prefrontal cortex [PFC] and other frontal cortical regions implicated in advanced cognitive functions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Contemporary views consider brain maturation a dynamic process in which functionally related networks become more strongly linked over time by weakening between-network connections and intensifying within-network connections, aided by preferential myelination of longer axonal tracts.

    “Rather, contemporary views of brain maturation consider it to be a dynamic process by which different networks of functionally related regions become more strongly linked over time (24; 28; 29) via weakening connections between different networks while intensifying within-network connections, particularly those linking more distant network regions (30) – the later presumably aided by the”
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    • cites [24] Fair, 2008, The maturing architecture of the brain's default network, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source

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    • cites [28] Johnson, 2001, Functional brain development in humans, Nat Rev Neurosci source

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    • cites [29] Stevens, 2009, Changes in the interaction of resting-state neural networks from adolescence to adulthood, Hum Brain Mapp source

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    Premisecitation

    Adolescents sometimes show greater ventral striatum activation while receiving rewards than children or adults, although this is not always observed.

    “On the one hand, adolescents sometimes (41; 42; 43), although not always (44), show greater activation in ventral striatum while receiving rewards than do children or adults.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [41] Galvan, 2006, Earlier development of the accumbens relative to oribitofrontal cortex might underlie risk-taking behavior in adolescents, J Neurosci source

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    • cites [42] Cohen, 2010, A unique adolescent response to reward prediction errors, Nat Neurosci source

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    • cites [43] Van Leijenhorst, 2010, Adolescent risky decision-making: Neurocognitive development of reward and control regions, Neuroimage source

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    Premisereasoning

    Myelination and synaptic pruning help reconfigure brain connectivity into the adult form and are thought to contribute to developmental thinning in the neocortex.

    “These processes of myelination and synaptic pruning help to reconfigure brain connectivity into the adult form and are thought to contribute to the developmental “thinning” that occurs in the neocortex”
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    Premisecitation

    Myelination speeds information flow across distant brain regions and magnifies their impact.

    “Although myelination begins early in life and continues into adulthood, its production escalates notably during adolescence (25), thereby speeding information flow across distant regions and magnifying their impact (26).”
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    • cites [26] Markham, 2004, Experience-driven brain plasticity: Beyond the synapse, Neuron Glia Biol source

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    Premisecitation

    Myelination begins early in life and continues into adulthood, but its production escalates notably during adolescence.

    “Although myelination begins early in life and continues into adulthood, its production escalates notably during adolescence (25), thereby speeding information flow across distant regions and magnifying their impact (26).”
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    • cites [25] Lu, 2009, Morphological development of the brain: What has imaging told us

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    Premisecitation

    Thinning of cortical gray matter may relate to declines in synaptic processes and increases in myelinated white matter tracts, decreasing the relative gray matter to white matter volume.

    “The thinning of cortical “gray matter” regions enriched in neurons, synapses and support cells with maturation may be related not only to declines in the number of synaptic processes but also to increases in myelinated “white matter” tracts that pass underneath cortical gray matter, decreasing relative gray matter to white matter volume (27).”
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    • cites [27] Tau, 2010, Normal development of brain circuits, Neuropsychopharmacology source

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    Premisecitation

    Regressive processes are most prevalent early in brain development but continue throughout life, and synaptic pruning is a hallmark of adolescent brain transformation.

    “Although such regressive processes are most prevalent during early brain development, they continue to some extent throughout life, with synaptic pruning in particular being a hallmark of the brain transformations of adolescence.”
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    • cites [21] Rakic, 1994, Synaptic development of the cerebral cortex: Implications for learning, memory, and mental illness

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    Premisecitation

    Evidence for delayed maturation of frontal regions includes cortical thinning and switches from more diffuse to greater focal activation of frontal regions during tasks requiring inhibitory self-control.

    “Evidence for delayed maturation of frontal regions is evident in terms of cortical thinning (33), as well as via switches from more diffuse to greater focal activation of frontal regions during performance on tasks requiring inhibitory self-control (31; 34).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [33] Gogtay, 2004, Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source

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    • cites [31] Durston, 2006, A shift from diffuse to focal cortical activity with development, Dev Sci source

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    • cites [34] Casey, 1997, A developmental functional MRI study of prefrontal activation during performance of a go-no-go task, J Cogn Neurosci source

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    Premisecitation

    Pruning during adolescence is highly specific and can be pronounced, with loss of close to 50% of synaptic connections in some regions but little decline in others.

    “Pruning during adolescence is highly specific and can be pronounced, resulting in a loss of close to 50% of the synaptic connections in some regions, but with little decline in others (21).”
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    • cites [21] Rakic, 1994, Synaptic development of the cerebral cortex: Implications for learning, memory, and mental illness

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    Premisecitation

    Stressful and emotionally arousing situations attenuate activity in the prefrontal cortex and other frontal regions while increasing activity in subcortical regions modulating emotional reactivity such as the amygdala.

    “Indeed, stressful and emotionally arousing situations have been shown to attenuate activity in PFC and other frontal regions (32), while at the same time increasing activity in subcortical regions modulating emotional reactivity such as the amygdala, as discussed later.”
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    • cites [32] Liston, 2009, Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source

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    Premisecitation

    A frontal cortex region that monitors penalties and conflict is activated by the threat of both mild and high penalties in adults but only by high penalty in adolescents.

    “Likewise, a region of frontal cortex that monitors penalties and conflict was activated by the threat of both mild and high penalties in adults, but only by the high penalty in adolescents, data suggesting that this area is less sensitive to penalties in adolescents than adults (54).”
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    • cites [54] Crone, 2008, Neural mechanisms supporting flexible performance adjustment during development, Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci source

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    Premisecitation

    Adolescents show markedly more risk-taking than adults in a computerized risk-taking task when in the presence of peers, but not when individuals at both ages are tested alone.

    “Social peers seem particularly effective in inducing “hot” emotional states during adolescence, with adolescents showing markedly more risk-taking than adults when tested in a computerized risk-taking task in the presence of peers, but not when individuals at both ages were tested alone (69).”
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    • cites [69] Gutman, 2003, Persistent central nervous system effects of an adverse early environment: Clinical and preclinical studies, Physiol Behav source

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    Premisecitation

    Adolescent rats are often less sensitive than adults to aversive properties of both non-drug and drug stimuli, with drug effects emerging at higher doses of the same drugs that at lower doses they find more reinforcing than adults.

    “For instance, adolescent rats are often less sensitive than adults to aversive properties of both non-drug and drug stimuli, with the latter emerging at higher doses of the same drugs that, at lower doses, they conversely find more reinforcing than adults (cocaine, amphetamine, nicotine and alcohol)(38; 60; 61).”
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    • cites [38] Doremus-Fitzwater, 2010, Motivational systems in adolescence: Possible implications for age differences in substance abuse and other risk-taking behaviors, Brain Cogn source

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    • cites [60] Torres, 2008, Enhanced vulnerability to the rewarding effects of nicotine during the adolescent period of development, Pharmacol Biochem Behav source

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    • cites [61] Spear, 2005, Low dose effects in psychopharmacology: Ontogenetic considerations, Nonlinearity Biol Toxicol Med source

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    Premisecitation

    Adolescents show greater ventral striatum responses to larger rewards but weaker responses to relatively small rewards.

    “Type of task, context and reward intensity might contribute to differences seen across studies (45), with adolescents for instance found to show greater ventral striatum responses to larger rewards but weaker responses to relatively small rewards (41).”
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    • cites [41] Galvan, 2006, Earlier development of the accumbens relative to oribitofrontal cortex might underlie risk-taking behavior in adolescents, J Neurosci source

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    Premisecitation

    Although rational decision making of adolescents reaches adult-typical levels by mid-adolescence, this capacity can be reduced under stressful, emotionally charged, and arousing circumstances, a phenomenon called hot cognitions.

    “Indeed, although the rational decision making of adolescents reaches adult-typical levels by mid-adolescence, this capacity can be reduced under stressful, emotionally charged and arousing circumstances (49) – a phenomenon called “hot cognitions” (see 67).”
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    • cites [49] Steinberg, 2009, Age differences in future orientation and delay discounting, Child Dev source

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    • cites [67] Figner, 2009, Affective and deliberative processes in risky choice: Age differences in risk taking in the Columbia card task, J Exp Psyhol Learn Mem Cogn source

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    Premisecitation

    Beneficial effects of exposures have been seen following exposures during adolescence and in adulthood, but studies have yet to include age comparisons to determine whether the adolescent brain is more sensitive to these effects than the adult brain.

    “Such beneficial effects have been seen following exposures during adolescence (82) and in adulthood (83), although studies have yet to include age comparisons to determine whether the brain of the adolescent is more sensitive to these effects than the adult brain.”
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    • cites [82] Kim, 2004, Age-dependence of the effect of treadmill exercise on cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus of rats, Neurosci Lett source

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    • cites [83] Pfefferbaum, 1994, Self-report study of impulsive and delinquent behavior in college students, J Adolesc Health source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Small corrections to slightly derailed developmental paths in adolescence might produce greater benefits than delaying intervention until the paths have diverged much later.

    “Even modest adjustments of developmental trajectories that are slightly off-track during adolescence may yield substantially more benefit than waiting until those trajectories have diverged considerably later in life.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The environmental conditions an adolescent experiences are important.
    • Rests on an assumption: The adolescent brain, as it matures, is responsive to such experiences.

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    Premisecitation

    The balance between plasticity and stability is tilted toward plasticity early in life, and at maturity it shifts toward greater stability of neural circuits, although restricted plasticity remains.

    “The balance between plasticity and stability is tilted towards plasticity early in life -- a time when there are many opportunities for the brain to be sculpted by experiences – ranging from initial sensory experiences to early nutrient exposure/restriction or developmental adversities (70; 71; 72). At maturity, the balance is shifted toward greater stability of neural circuits, although the”
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    • cites [70] Hensch, 2004, Critical period regulation, Annu Rev Neurosci source

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    • cites [71] Taylor, 2007, Developmental programming of obesity in mammals, Exp Physiol source

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    • cites [72] Bavelier, 2010, Removing brakes on adult brain plasticity: From molecular to behavioral interventions, J Neurosci source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationnone given

    Converging data and emerging consensus in certain instances may be sufficient to help inform adolescent policy discussions.

    “Nevertheless, converging data and emerging consensus in certain instances may be sufficient to help inform adolescent policy discussions, as illustrated below.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Attenuated aversive consequences in the face of potential for greater rewarding benefits could combine with genetic and environmental risk factors to promote relatively high levels of reward consumption, leading to problematic involvements with alcohol, other drugs, or other rewarding or risky stimuli.

    “Attenuated aversive consequences in the face of a potential for greater rewarding benefits could combine with genetic and environmental risk factors to promote relatively high levels of reward “consumption”, leading to problematic involvements with alcohol, other drugs, or other rewarding or risky stimuli.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    There is a partially biologically-driven phase shift toward delayed sleep onset and later awakening that usually leads to some sleep deprivation during the school week.

    “evidence for a partially biologically-driven phase shift towards delayed sleep onset and later awakening that usually leads to some sleep deprivation during the school week (86)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [86] Carskadon, 1993, Association between puberty and delayed phase preference, Sleep source

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    Premisecitation

    In some adolescents, adjustment difficulties can develop into mental disorders, and the occurrence of various disorders increases during adolescence.

    “For some adolescents, adjustment problems may evolve into psychological disorders, with rises in the incidence of a variety of disorders during adolescence (89).”
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    • cites [89]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Risk-taking has been viewed as one dimension of the drive for thrills and excitement.

    “Indeed, risk-taking has been viewed as “one dimension of the drive for thrills and excitement” (84, p.296).”
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    • cites [84] Steinberg, 2009, Are adolescents less mature than adults?: minors' access to abortion, the juvenile death penalty, and the alleged APA “flip-flop”, Am Psychol source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Synapses in the adolescent brain are notably more dynamic than in adulthood, with axons growing and retracting and new synapses formed and others eliminated at greater rates.

    “Synapses in the adolescent brain are notably more dynamic than they are in adulthood, with axons growing and retracting and new synapses formed and others eliminated at notably greater rates than seen in the mature brain (75; 76).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [75] Zuo, 2005, Development of long-term dendritic spine stability in diverse regions of cerebral cortex, Neuron source

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    • cites [76] Stevens, 2002, Adenosine: A neuron-glial transmitter promoting myelination in the CNS in response to action potentials, Neuron source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Moving from the science of adolescent brain development to public policy is a leap, particularly because most relevant data come from human imaging studies that largely do not address causal or mechanistic relationships or from animal models whose relevance to human adolescents often remains to be established.

    “It is a leap from the science of adolescent brain development to public policy, particularly given that most relevant data are derived from human imaging studies that largely do not address causal or mechanistic relationships, or from research using simple animal models whose relevance to human adolescents often remains to be established.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Myelination is thought to be one of the negative regulators of plasticity, raising the possibility that experience-related increases in myelination may stabilize relevant axonal pathways at the cost of their further plasticity.

    “Myelination is thought to be one of the negative regulators of plasticity, raising the possibility that experience-related increases in myelination may serve to stabilize relevant axonal pathways at the cost of their further plasticity (79).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [79] He, 2007, Neurogenesis decreases during brain maturation from adolescence to adulthood, Pharmacol Biochem Behav source

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    Interpretationnone given

    Adolescents often view rewarding and aversive stimuli differently than adults, showing enhanced sensitivity to rewards and attenuated aversive sensitivities that may extend to alcohol and other drugs.

    “Adolescents often seem to view rewarding and aversive stimuli differently than do adults, showing a shift toward enhanced sensitivity to rewards but attenuated aversive sensitivities that may extend to alcohol and other drugs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Formation of modest amounts of new neurons throughout life is restricted to a few brain regions but is thought to be important for some forms of learning, for repair after brain damage, and as one possible mediator of beneficial effects of exercise and enriched environments.

    “Formation of modest amounts of new neurons throughout life is restricted to a few brain regions, but is thought to be important for some forms of learning, for repair after brain damage, and as one possible mediator of beneficial effects of exercise and enriched environments (e.g., 81).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [81] Thiriet, 2008, Environmental enrichment during adolescence regulates gene expression in the striatum of mice, Brain Res source

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  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Adolescents have enhanced sensitivity to strong rewards.

    “evidence for enhanced sensitivity to strong rewards during adolescence”

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    Adolescents have attenuated aversive sensitivity.

    “adolescent-associated attenuations in aversive sensitivity”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The surrounding context strongly influences how adolescents behave.

    “Context plays a particularly dramatic role in influencing adolescent behavior”

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    Stressful, exciting, or emotionally charged situations boost activity in subcortical areas that regulate responses to social-emotional and rewarding cues.

    “stressful, exciting and emotionally arousing circumstances not only increasing activity in subcortical regions modulating reactivity to socioemotional and rewarding stimuli”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Such situations also reduce activity in frontal cortical areas essential for reasoning and cognitive control.

    “but also attenuating activity in regions of the frontal cortical critical for logical thinking and cognitive control”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    This fosters 'hot cognitions' and can contribute to risky behavior.

    “thereby promoting “hot cognitions” and potentially leading to risky activities”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Typical adolescent thinking and behavior are partly rooted in neurobiology.

    “Adolescent-typical ways of thinking and behaving appear in part neurobiologically-based.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A large number of young people go through adolescence without much difficulty, showing limited risk-taking and few serious negative outcomes.

    “Many youth traverse adolescence relatively easily, with their risk-taking limited and without notable adverse consequences”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    For others, choices made during adolescence lead to serious outcomes such as long-term substance abuse, imprisonment, or death.

    “for other individuals, adolescent behavioral choices have severe consequences, including lasting alcohol/drug abuse, incarceration, or even death”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    It remains largely unknown how adolescent brain development shapes individual differences over adolescence, or how environmental experiences contribute to resilience or vulnerability in particular adolescents.

    “Little is known of how development of the adolescent brain influences expression of individual differences across the course of adolescence, nor of the role of environmental experiences in the emergence of resiliencies and vulnerabilities among individual adolescents.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The environmental conditions an adolescent experiences are important.

    “environmental circumstances of the adolescent matter”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The adolescent brain, as it matures, is responsive to such experiences.

    “the maturing brain during adolescence is sensitive to these experiences”
12 of 12

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Drug exposure during adolescence is associated with more chronic and intensive use and greater risk of substance use disorder than initiation at older ages.

    “Drug exposure during adolescence is associated with more chronic and intensive use and greater risk of a substance use disorder than is initiation at older ages.167,169–172”

    From Neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis (2016) · cites this paper as [167]

    In “Broad implications of recent research for adolescent policy and programs” (page unavailable), the paper says adolescent responses to rewards may encourage continued and escalating drug use and lead to problematic involvement. It does not establish that people first exposed during adolescence have more chronic or intensive use, or a greater risk of substance use disorder, than people who initiate at older ages. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Normal adolescent-specific behaviours such as risk-taking, novelty-seeking, and high sensitivity to peer pressure increase propensity to experiment with legal and illegal drugs, possibly reflecting incomplete development of brain regions involved in executive control and motivation.

    “Normal adolescent-specific behaviours (eg, risk-taking, novelty-seeking, and high sensitivity to peer pressure) increase the propensity to experiment with legal and illegal drugs,167 which might reflect the incomplete development of brain regions (eg, myelination of frontal lobe regions) that are involved in the processes of executive control and motivation.168”

    From Neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis (2016) · cites this paper as [167]

    Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Experimentation and addiction most often start in adolescence, a period of important brain developmental changes.

    “Experimentation, as well as the process of addiction, most often starts in adolescence,166 a period during which the brain undergoes important developmental changes.167”

    From Neurobiology of addiction: a neurocircuitry analysis (2016) · cites this paper as [167]

  • The adolescent brain is sensitive to being influenced by the environment and by modifiable lifestyle behaviors such as physical activity.

    “since the adolescent brain is sensitive to be influenced by environment and modifiable lifestyle behaviors such as PA [21,22].”

    From Active Commuting to and from School, Cognitive Performance, and Academic Achievement in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies (2019) · cites this paper as [21]

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

7 of the 94 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Spear, L. P.
Affiliations
Binghamton University (US)
Corresponding author
Spear, Linda Patia
ORCID
Spear, Linda Patia
Venue
Journal of Adolescent Health
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2013-02
Volume
52
Issue
2
Pages
S7-S13
ISSN
1054-139X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.05.006
PMC
PMC3982854
OpenAlex
W4255839518
Semantic Scholar
188949c981b64e22a98522bf71ce4dd9d6013e0c
Cited by
744
References
94
Citations by year
2026: 71 · 2025: 78 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 58 · 2022: 67 · 2021: 75 · 2020: 99 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 44 · 2017: 45 · 2016: 42 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 2
FWCI
2.46
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Adolescent Health (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
NIH (U01 AA019972, P50 AA017823, R01 AA018026, R01 AA017355, R01 AA 016887)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
Keywords
adolescent brain development, functional connectivity, inhibitory control, reward sensitivity, aversive stimuli, neuroplasticity, emotion regulation, risk-taking, adolescent health policy, youth welfare
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Brain, Brain Mapping, Humans, Public Policy, Reward, Risk-Taking, Harm Reduction, Adolescent Development, Neuroimaging

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-04.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-04.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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