The neuro-immune balance in neuropathic pain: Involvement of inflammatory immune cells, immune-like glial cells and cytokines

Austin, Paul J.; Moalem-Taylor, Gila

doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2010.08.013

Cited by 608Pain Mechanisms and TreatmentsNeuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration MechanismsPain Management and Treatment

The neuro-immune balance in neuropathic pain: Involvement of inflammatory immune cells, immune-like glial cells and cytokines

Austin, Paul J., Moalem-Taylor, Gila·2010·Journal of Neuroimmunology

DOI 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2010.08.013

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Abstract

In a large proportion of individuals nervous system damage may lead to a debilitating chronic neuropathic pain. Such pain may now be considered a neuro-immune disorder, since recent data indicate a critical involvement of innate and adaptive immune responses following nerve injury. Activation of immune and immune-like glial cells in the injured nerve, dorsal root ganglia and spinal cord results in the release of both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, as well as algesic and analgesic mediators, the balance of which determines whether pain chronicity is established. This review will critically examine the role of the immune system in modulating chronic pain in animal models of nervous system injury, and highlight the possible therapeutic opportunities to intervene in the development and maintenance of neuropathic pain.

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Neuropathic pain pathophysiology is complex and includes functional alterations of the CNS and PNS in addition to neuro-immune interactions.
“Neuropathic pain pathophysiology is complex and includes functional alterations of the CNS and PNS (Cohen and Mao, 2014) in addition to neuro-immune interactions (Austin and Moalem-Taylor, 2010).”
From The endogenous cannabinoid system: a budding source of targets for treating inflammatory and neuropathic pain (2018) · cites this paper as Austin and Moalem-Taylor, 2010
Five nights of partial sleep deprivation lead to a reduction of stimulated IL-2 production in healthy humans.
“Five nights of partial sleep deprivation led to a reduction of stimulated IL-2 production in healthy humans (24), which is in line with the studies manipulating sleep for only one night.”
From The Sleep-Immune Crosstalk in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [24]
Sleep, by favoring pro-inflammatory and Th1 cytokine production, supports the interaction between APCs and T cells and the subsequent differentiation and proliferation of Th1 cells, eventually leading to the formation of IgG1 and IgG3 antibodies.
“In addition, sleep, by favoring pro-inflammatory and Th1 cytokine production, further supports the interaction between APCs and T cells and the subsequent differentiation and proliferation of Th1 cells, eventually leading to the formation of IgG1 and IgG3 antibodies (24, 67, 148, 254, 320).”
From The Sleep-Immune Crosstalk in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [24]
A shift in the Th1/Th2 balance has been observed for alcohol dependence-associated sleep changes and in response to experimental sleep deficiency, and may explain lower vaccine efficacy and increased infection risk in the context of sleep deficiency.
“Such a shift in the Th1/Th2 balance has been also observed for alcohol dependence-associated sleep changes (462) and in response to experimental sleep deficiency (24, 320), and may explain lower vaccine efficacy and increased infection risk in the context of sleep deficiency”
From The Sleep-Immune Crosstalk in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [24]

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CCL2 is a key mediator of microglia activation in neuropathic pain states
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Intrathecal HIV-1 Envelope Glycoprotein gp120 Induces Enhanced Pain States Mediated by Spinal Cord Proinflammatory Cytokines
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Possible role of inflammatory mediators in tactile hypersensitivity in rat models of mononeuropathy
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T lymphocytes play a role in neuropathic pain following peripheral nerve injury in rats
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Self-citation
Macrophage and lymphocyte invasion of dorsal root ganglia after peripheral nerve lesions in the rat
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Transforming growth factor-beta suppresses activation and proliferation of microglia in vitro.
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The Transforming Growth Factor‐βs
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IFN-γ receptor signaling mediates spinal microglia activation driving neuropathic pain
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Hyperalgesia in experimental neuropathy is dependent on the TNF receptor 1
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Interleukin-18-Mediated Microglia/Astrocyte Interaction in the Spinal Cord Enhances Neuropathic Pain Processing after Nerve Injury
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P2X7-Dependent Release of Interleukin-1β and Nociception in the Spinal Cord following Lipopolysaccharide
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“…microglia and contribute to pain hypersensitivity inmodels of neuropathy; the ionotropic receptors, P2X4 (Coull et al., 2005; Tsuda et al., 2003, 2008) and P2X7 (Chessell et al., 2005; Clark et al., 2010); as well as the metabotropic, P2Y12 (Kobayashi et al., 2008b; Tozaki-Saitoh et al., 2008).”
Influential
Evidence that exogenous and endogenous fractalkine can induce spinal nociceptive facilitation in rats
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P2Y12Receptors in Spinal Microglia Are Required for Neuropathic Pain after Peripheral Nerve Injury
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Induction of interleukin-6 in axotomized sensory neurons
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P2Y12Receptor Upregulation in Activated Microglia Is a Gateway of p38 Signaling and Neuropathic Pain
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Increased Sensitivity of Injured and Adjacent Uninjured Rat Primary Sensory Neurons to Exogenous Tumor Necrosis Factor-α after Spinal Nerve Ligation
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Molecular mechanisms of interleukin-10-mediated inhibition of NF- κ B activity: a role for p50
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Toll-Like Receptor Signaling Is Critical for Wallerian Degeneration and Functional Recovery after Peripheral Nerve Injury
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Microglia: phagocyte and glia cell
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JAK/STAT3 pathway is activated in spinal cord microglia after peripheral nerve injury and contributes to neuropathic pain development in rat
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Serotonin in Pain and Analgesia: Actions in the Periphery
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Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Family Members Sensitize Nociceptors In Vitro and Produce Thermal Hyperalgesia In Vivo
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Interleukin‐6 Production by Schwann Cells and Induction in Sciatic Nerve Injury
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Conditioning Injury-Induced Spinal Axon Regeneration Fails in Interleukin-6 Knock-Out Mice
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Anti-inflammatory interleukin-10 therapy in CCI neuropathy decreases thermal hyperalgesia, macrophage recruitment, and endoneurial TNF-α expression
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Tyrosine Phosphorylation of the NR2B Subunit of the NMDA Receptor in the Spinal Cord during the Development and Maintenance of Inflammatory Hyperalgesia
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Complement Induction in Spinal Cord Microglia Results in Anaphylatoxin C5a-Mediated Pain Hypersensitivity
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IL‐1J potentiates heat‐activated currents in rat sensory neurons: involvement of IL‐1RI, tyrosine kinase, and protein kinase C
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Nociceptive and inflammatory effects of subcutaneous TNF α
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Clinical Correlates of Elevated Serum Concentrations of Cytokines and Autoantibodies in Patients With Spinal Cord Injury
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Role of spinal microglia in rat models of peripheral nerve injury and inflammation
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Enhanced excitability of nociceptive trigeminal ganglion neurons by satellite glial cytokine following peripheral inflammation
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Phase 2 trial of eritoran tetrasodium (E5564), a Toll-like receptor 4 antagonist, in patients with severe sepsis*
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Cytokine‐mediated inflammatory hyperalgesia limited by interleukin‐4
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Satellite‐cell‐derived nerve growth factor and neurotrophin‐3 are involved in noradrenergic sprouting in the dorsal root ganglia following peripheral nerve injury in the rat
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Effect of cytokines on neuronal excitability
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Pro- and Anti-inflammatory Cytokine Gene Expression in Rat Sciatic Nerve Chronic Constriction Injury Model of Neuropathic Pain
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Inflammation and hyperalgesia induced by nerve injury in the rat: a key role of mast cells
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P2X7-related modulation of pathological nociception in rats
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Interleukin-17 Contributes to Neuroinflammation and Neuropathic Pain Following Peripheral Nerve Injury in Mice
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Self-citation
The Liberation of Fractalkine in the Dorsal Horn Requires Microglial Cathepsin S
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Hyperalgesia due to nerve injury: role of neutrophils
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Controlling pathological pain by adenovirally driven spinal production of the anti‐inflammatory cytokine, interleukin‐10
Milligan, E. D., Langer, S. J., Sloane, E. M., He, L., Wieseler‐Frank, J., O’Connor, K., Martin, D., Forsayeth, J., Maier, S. F., Johnson, K. W., et al. (2005) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.04057.x · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Silencing the Kir4.1 Potassium Channel Subunit in Satellite Glial Cells of the Rat Trigeminal Ganglion Results in Pain-Like Behavior in the Absence of Nerve Injury
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Role of peri-axonal inflammation in the development of thermal hyperalgesia and guarding behavior in a rat model of neuropathic pain
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Cell-type-specific regulation of nerve growth factor (NGF) synthesis in non-neuronal cells: comparison of Schwann cells with other cell types
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CNS‐infiltrating CD4+ T lymphocytes contribute to murine spinal nerve transection‐induced neuropathic pain
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Protective autoimmunity: interferon‐γ enables microglia to remove glutamate without evoking inflammatory mediators
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Stress and IL-1β contribute to the development of depressive-like behavior following peripheral nerve injury
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The Prevalence and Impact of Chronic Pain with Neuropathic Pain Symptoms in the General Population
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Endogenous interleukin‐6 contributes to hypersensitivity to cutaneous stimuli and changes in neuropeptides associated with chronic nerve constriction in mice
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Gliopathic Pain: When Satellite Glial Cells Go Bad
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Induction of CX3CL1 Expression in Astrocytes and CX3CR1 in Microglia in the Spinal Cord of a Rat Model of Neuropathic Pain
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Sensory Impairments and Delayed Regeneration of Sensory Axons in Interleukin-6-Deficient Mice
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Glial TLR4 receptor as new target to treat neuropathic pain: Efficacy of a new receptor antagonist in a model of peripheral nerve injury in mice
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SOCS3-Mediated Blockade of JAK/STAT3 Signaling Pathway Reveals Its Major Contribution to Spinal Cord Neuroinflammation and Mechanical Allodynia after Peripheral Nerve Injury
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Selective targeting of regulatory T cells with CD28 superagonists allows effective therapy of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis
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Schwann cells: Activated peripheral glia and their role in neuropathic pain
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Leukemia Inhibitory Factor Determines the Growth Status of Injured Adult Sensory Neurons
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A comparison of spinal Iba1 and GFAP expression in rodent models of acute and chronic pain
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Cutaneous hyperalgesia induced by peripheral injection of interleukin-1β in the rat
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Evidence for a Role of Connexin 43 in Trigeminal Pain Using RNA Interference In Vivo
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Differential activation of spinal microglial and astroglial cells in a mouse model of peripheral neuropathic pain
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Controlling Neuropathic Pain by Adeno-Associated Virus Driven Production of the Anti-Inflammatory Cytokine, Interleukin-10
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Spinal nerve lesion‐induced mechanoallodynia and adrenergic sprouting in sensory ganglia are attenuated in interleukin‐6 knockout mice
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Mechanisms underlying extracellular ATP‐evoked interleukin‐6 release in mouse microglial cell line, MG‐5
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Etanercept reduces hyperalgesia in experimental painful neuropathy
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Upregulation and interaction of TNFα and gelatinases A and B in painful peripheral nerve injury
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Toll-like Receptors in Defense and Damage of the Central Nervous System
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Macrophage inflammatory protein-1α mediates the development of neuropathic pain following peripheral nerve injury through interleukin-1β up-regulation
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Genetic impairment of interleukin-1 signaling attenuates neuropathic pain, autotomy, and spontaneous ectopic neuronal activity, following nerve injury in mice
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Delayed Functional Expression of Neuronal Chemokine Receptors Following Focal Nerve Demyelination in the Rat: A Mechanism for the Development of Chronic Sensitization of Peripheral Nociceptors
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Effects of Etanercept and Minocycline in a rat model of spinal cord injury
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Spinal microglial and perivascular cell cannabinoid receptor type 2 activation reduces behavioral hypersensitivity without tolerance after peripheral nerve injury
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Brain-derived TNFα mediates neuropathic pain
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Pharmacological treatment of chronic pain—The need for CHANGE
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TNF-α receptors simultaneously activate Ca2+ mobilisation and stress kinases in cultured sensory neurones
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The Sleep-Immune Crosstalk in Health and Disease
Besedovsky, L., Lange, T., & Haack, M. (2019) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00010.2018 · Cited by 1,479 · see citing works
“, HIV, RA), numerous other diseases emerged in the last decades for which mild systemic elevations of inflammatory markers are characteristic, including cardiovascular (481) and metabolic diseases (153), certain forms of chronic pain (23), certain cancers (165), and neurodegenerative diseases (9).”
Background
Pathogenesis, diagnosis and clinical management of diabetic sensorimotor peripheral neuropathy
Sloan, G., Selvarajah, D., & Tesfaye, S. (2021) · Nature Reviews Endocrinology · doi:10.1038/s41574-021-00496-z · Cited by 534 · see citing works
Importance of glial activation in neuropathic pain
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Persistent Postsurgical Pain
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Dorsal Root Ganglion Infiltration by Macrophages Contributes to Paclitaxel Chemotherapy-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy
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Functional Recovery after Peripheral Nerve Injury is Dependent on the Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines IL-1β and TNF: Implications for Neuropathic Pain
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Neuropathic pain and cytokines: current perspectives
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OSTEOARTHRITIS JOINT PAIN: THE CYTOKINE CONNECTION
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Stress-induced hyperalgesia
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Sex differences in neuroimmunity and pain
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Antidepressants and gabapentinoids in neuropathic pain: Mechanistic insights
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Mast cell‐neural interactions contribute to pain and itch
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The endogenous cannabinoid system: a budding source of targets for treating inflammatory and neuropathic pain
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Neurological diseases and pain
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Spatial and temporal activation of spinal glial cells: Role of gliopathy in central neuropathic pain following spinal cord injury in rats
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Molecular mechanisms underlying the actions of arachidonic acid-derived prostaglandins on peripheral nociception
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Characterisation of Immune and Neuroinflammatory Changes Associated with Chemotherapy-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy
Makker, P. G. S., Duffy, S. S., Lees, J. G., Perera, C. J., Tonkin, R. S., Butovsky, O., Park, S. B., Goldstein, D., & Moalem‐Taylor, G. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0170814 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Self-citation
Toll-like receptors in chronic pain
Nicotra, L. L., Loram, L. C., Watkins, L. R., & Hutchinson, M. R. (2011) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.09.038 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
The role of microglia in the pathobiology of neuropathic pain development: what do we know?
Zhao, H., Alam, A., Chen, Q., Eusman, M. A., Pal, A., Eguchi, S., Wu, L., & Ma, D. (2017) · British Journal of Anaesthesia · doi:10.1093/bja/aex006 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Diabetic neuropathy: cutting-edge research and future directions
Yang, Y., Zhao, B. T., Wang, Y., Lan, H. H., Liu, X., Hu, Y., & Cao, P. (2025) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-025-02175-1 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Mesenchymal stromal cell-derived exosomes ameliorate peripheral neuropathy in a mouse model of diabetes
Fan, B., Li, C., Szalad, A., Wang, L., Pan, W., Zhang, R., Chopp, M., Zhang, Z. G., & Liu, X. (2019) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-019-05043-0 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Role of the immune system in neuropathic pain
Malcangio, M. (2019) · Scandinavian Journal of Pain · doi:10.1515/sjpain-2019-0138 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Wallerian degeneration and peripheral nerve conditions for both axonal regeneration and neuropathic pain induction
Dubový, P. (2011) · Annals of Anatomy - Anatomischer Anzeiger · doi:10.1016/j.aanat.2011.02.011 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Deficient CX3CR1 signaling promotes recovery after mouse spinal cord injury by limiting the recruitment and activation of Ly6Clo/iNOS+ macrophages
Donnelly, D. J., Longbrake, E. E., Shawler, T. M., Kigerl, K. A., Lai, W., Tovar, C. A., Ransohoff, R. M., & Popovich, P. G. (2011) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2114-11.2011 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Targeting the Microglial Signaling Pathways: New Insights in the Modulation of Neuropathic Pain
Popiołek-Barczyk, K., & Mika, J. (2016) · Current Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.2174/0929867323666160607120124 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Crosstalk between the nociceptive and immune systems in host defence and disease
McMahon, S. B., Russa, F. L., & Bennett, D. (2015) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3946 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Modulation of Peripheral Sensory Neurons by the Immune System: Implications for Pain Therapy
Stein, C., & Machelska, H. (2011) · Pharmacological Reviews · doi:10.1124/pr.110.003145 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Regulatory T cells attenuate neuropathic pain following peripheral nerve injury and experimental autoimmune neuritis
Austin, P. J., Kim, C. F., Perera, C. J., & Moalem‐Taylor, G. (2012) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2012.06.005 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
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Immune-mediated processes implicated in chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy
Lees, J. G., Makker, P. G. S., Tonkin, R. S., Abdulla, M., Park, S. B., Goldstein, D., & Moalem‐Taylor, G. (2017) · European Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2016.12.006 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
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Targeting cytokines for treatment of neuropathic pain
Hung, A. L., Lim, M., & Doshi, T. L. (2017) · Scandinavian Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.sjpain.2017.08.002 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Emerging Role of Schwann Cells in Neuropathic Pain: Receptors, Glial Mediators and Myelination
Wei, Z., Fei, Y., Su, W., & Chen, G. (2019) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2019.00116 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Pain-resolving immune mechanisms in neuropathic pain
Fiore, N. T., Debs, S. R., Hayes, J. P., Duffy, S. S., & Moalem‐Taylor, G. (2023) · Nature Reviews Neurology · doi:10.1038/s41582-023-00777-3 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
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MicroRNA modulation in complex regional pain syndrome
Orlova, I. A., Alexander, G. M., Qureshi, R., Saçan, A., Graziano, A., Barrett, J. E., Schwartzman, R. J., & Ajit, S. K. (2011) · Journal of Translational Medicine · doi:10.1186/1479-5876-9-195 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Doxycycline Suppresses Microglial Activation by Inhibiting the P38 MAPK and NF-KB Signaling Pathways
Santa-Cecília, F. V., Socias, B., Ouidja, M. O., Sepulveda-Diaz, J. E., Acuña, L., Silva, R. L., Michel, P. P., Del-Bel, E., Cunha, T. M., & Raisman-Vozari, R. (2016) · Neurotoxicity Research · doi:10.1007/s12640-015-9592-2 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Pain in Women: A Perspective Review on a Relevant Clinical Issue that Deserves Prioritization
Casale, R., Atzeni, F., Bazzichi, L., Beretta, G., Costantini, E., Sacerdote, P., & Tassorelli, C. (2021) · Pain and Therapy · doi:10.1007/s40122-021-00244-1 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Fractalkine/CX3CR1 signaling during neuropathic pain
Clark, A. K., & Malcangio, M. (2014) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2014.00121 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
CXCL1/CXCR2 signaling in pathological pain: Role in peripheral and central sensitization
Silva, R. L., Lopes, A. H., Guimarães, R. M., & Cunha, T. M. (2017) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2017.06.001 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Chronic Constriction of the Sciatic Nerve and Pain Hypersensitivity Testing in Rats
Austin, P. J., Wu, A., & Moalem‐Taylor, G. (2012) · Journal of Visualized Experiments · doi:10.3791/3393 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
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Microglial signalling mechanisms: Cathepsin S and Fractalkine
Clark, A. K., & Malcangio, M. (2011) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.09.012 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Interleukin-4 mediates the analgesia produced by low-intensity exercise in mice with neuropathic pain
Bobinski, F., Teixeira, J. M., Sluka, K. A., & Santos, A. R. S. (2017) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001109 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Detailed characterization of neuro-immune responses following neuropathic injury in mice
Kim, C. F., & Moalem‐Taylor, G. (2011) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2011.06.022 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
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Sleep disturbances and severe stress as glial activators: key targets for treating central sensitization in chronic pain patients?
Nijs, J., Loggia, M. L., Polli, A., Moens, M., Huysmans, E., Goudman, L., Meeus, M., Vanderweeën, L., Ickmans, K., & Clauw, D. J. (2017) · Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets · doi:10.1080/14728222.2017.1353603 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Spinal TLR4 mediates the transition to a persistent mechanical hypersensitivity after the resolution of inflammation in serum-transferred arthritis
Christianson, C. A., Dumlao, D. S., Stokes, J. A., Dennis, E. A., Svensson, C. I., Corr, M., & Yaksh, T. L. (2011) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2011.09.020 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
MAPK signaling downstream to TLR4 contributes to paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy
Li, Y., Zhang, H., Kosturakis, A. K., Cassidy, R. M., Zhang, H., Kennamer-Chapman, R. M., Jawad, A. B., Colomand, C. M., Harrison, D. S., & Dougherty, P. M. (2015) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2015.06.003 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Adoptive transfer of M2 macrophages reduces neuropathic pain via opioid peptides
Pannell, M., Łabuz, D., Celik, M. Ö., Keye, J., Batra, A., Siegmund, B., & Machelska, H. (2016) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-016-0735-z · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Prior voluntary wheel running attenuates neuropathic pain
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Role of the immune system in neuropathic pain
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The Role of Glia and the Immune System in the Development and Maintenance of Neuropathic Pain
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Authors: Austin, P. J., & Moalem-Taylor, G.
Affiliations: UNSW Sydney (AU)
Corresponding author: Austin, Paul J.
ORCID: Austin, Paul J.
Venue: Journal of Neuroimmunology
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2010-12
Volume: 229
Issue: 1-2
Pages: 26-50
ISSN: 0165-5728 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2010.08.013
OpenAlex: W2111964682
Semantic Scholar: 1eb0fd50688ee519889d6649f4b3dbab6c461a2a
Cited by: 607
References: 401
Citations by year: 2026: 28 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 40 · 2019: 41 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 42 · 2016: 52 · 2015: 47 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 43 · 2012: 31
FWCI: 3.41
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Neuroimmunology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Pain Mechanisms and Treatments
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
Health Sciences › Medicine › Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine › Pain Management and Treatment
Keywords: neuropathic pain, neuroimmune interactions, chronic pain, cytokines, dorsal root ganglia, spinal cord, nerve injury, pain chronicity
MeSH terms: Animals, Humans, Immune System, Inflammation, Nervous System, Neuralgia, Neuroglia, Cytokines

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The neuro-immune balance in neuropathic pain: Involvement of inflammatory immune cells, immune-like glial cells and cytokines

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