Evidence for elevated and variable atmospheric oxygen in the Precambrian
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Levels higher than 1% PAL have also been suggested based on trace element contents of pyrite.
“Levels higher than 1% PAL have also been suggested based on trace element contents of pyrite (Large et al., 2019; Steadman et al., 2020; Yierpan et al., 2020).”
From Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview (2021) · cites this paper as Steadman et al., 2020
Recent data for gas inclusions in halite dated at 815 Ma, interpreted to reflect trapped ancient atmosphere, put the rise to 50% PAL.
“Moreover, recent data for gas inclusions in halite dated at 815 Ma, interpreted to reflect trapped ancient atmosphere, put the rise to 50% PAL (Blamey et al., 2016; also Steadman et al., 2020).”
From Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview (2021) · cites this paper as Steadman et al., 2020
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Diamond, C. W., & Lyons, T. W. (2018) · Emerging Topics in Life Sciences · doi:10.1042/etls20170146 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Guerroué, E. L. (2010) · Comptes Rendus Géoscience · doi:10.1016/j.crte.2009.12.008 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Johnson, S. C., Large, R., Coveney, R., Kelley, K., Slack, J., Steadman, J., Gregory, D. D., Sack, P., & Meffre, S. (2017) · Mineralium Deposita · doi:10.1007/s00126-017-0735-7 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationZonation of hydrothermal minerals at the Juno Mine, Tennant Creek Goldfield, central Australia
Large, R. (1975) · Economic Geology · doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.70.8.1387 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationSedimentary sulfur isotopes and Neoarchean ocean oxygenation
Fakhraee, M., Crowe, S. A., & Katsev, S. (2018) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.1701835 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Mukherjee, I., Large, R. R., Bull, S. W., Gregory, D., Stepanov, A. S., Ávila, J. N., Ireland, T. R., & Corkrey, R. (2019) · American Mineralogist · doi:10.2138/am-2019-6873 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citationThoby, M., Konhauser, K., Fralick, P., Altermann, W., Visscher, P., & Lalonde, S. (2019) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g45706.1 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Lowe, D. (2013) · Geological Society of America Bulletin · doi:10.1130/b30782.1 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Hawke, M. L., Meffre, S., Stein, H. J., Hilliard, P., Large, R. R., & Gemmell, J. (2015) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2015.06.011 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationAtmospheric gas in modern and ancient halite fluid inclusions: A screening protocol
Blamey, N., & Brand, U. (2019) · Gondwana Research · doi:10.1016/j.gr.2018.12.004 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationSynthesis and incorporation of selenide in pyrite and mackinawite
Diener, A., & Neumann, T. (2011) · Radiochimica Acta · doi:10.1524/ract.2011.1883 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Oxygen, iron, and sulfur geochemical cycles on early Earth: Paradigms and contradictions
Ohmoto, H., Watanabe, Y., Lasaga, A., Naraoka, H., Johnson, I., Brainard, J., & Chorney, A. (2014) · Geological Society of America eBooks · doi:10.1130/2014.2504(09 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Gallagher, M., Turner, E. C., & Kamber, B. (2015) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/gbi.12139 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
3 of the 117 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
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Oxygenation, Life, and the Planetary System during Earth's Middle History: An Overview
Lyons, T. W., Diamond, C. W., Planavsky, N. J., Reinhard, C. T., & Li, C. (2021) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2020.2418 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
“Moreover, recent data for gas inclusions in halite dated at 815 Ma, interpreted to reflect trapped ancient atmosphere, put the rise to 50% PAL (Blamey et al., 2016; also Steadman et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialEvolution of Atmospheric O2 Through the Phanerozoic, Revisited
Mills, B. J. W., Krause, A. J., Jarvis, I., & Cramer, B. D. (2023) · Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences · doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-095425 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
“A potential problem with the method appears most clearly when looking at samples from the Archean,which indicate an atmospheric O2 level of 3% atm—one-seventh of the present-day level (Steadman et al. 2020).”
Extreme variability in atmospheric oxygen levels in the late Precambrian
Krause, A. J., Mills, B. J. W., Merdith, A. S., Lenton, T. M., & Poulton, S. W. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abm8191 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Oxidized sulfur-rich arc magmas formed porphyry Cu deposits by 1.88 Ga
Meng, X., Kleinsasser, J., Richards, J. P., Tapster, S. R., Jugo, P. J., Simon, A. C., Kontak, D. J., Robb, L. J., Bybee, G., Marsh, J., et al. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-22349-z · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Reconstructing Earth’s atmospheric oxygenation history using machine learning
Chen, G.-X., Cheng, Q., Lyons, T., Shen, J., Agterberg, F., Huang, N., & Zhao, M. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-022-33388-5 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Although there is no “ smoking gun ” evidence for deoxygenation at ~0.9Ga, it has been reported recently that the early Neoproterozoic ocean maintained low oxygen levels as inferred from Se/Co ratios measured in sedimentary pyrites 67 and phosphorus-limited conditions 68 .”
BackgroundThe biogeochemistry of ferruginous lakes and past ferruginous oceans
Swanner, E. D., Lambrecht, N., Wittkop, C. A., Harding, C., Katsev, S., Torgeson, J. M., & Poulton, S. W. (2020) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103430 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Petrographic carbon in ancient sediments constrains Proterozoic Era atmospheric oxygen levels
Canfield, D., van Zuilen, M. V., Nabhan, S., Bjerrum, C., Zhang, S.-C., Wang, H.-J., & Wang, X.-M. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · doi:10.1073/pnas.2101544118 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Atmospheric oxygen of the Paleozoic
Brand, U., Davis, A., Shaver, K. K., Blamey, N., Heizler, M., & Lécuyer, C. (2021) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103560 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationCo-evolution of trace elements and life in Precambrian oceans: The pyrite edition
Mukherjee, I., & Large, R. (2020) · Geology · doi:10.1130/geol.s.12456332 · Cited by 24
Self-citationSedimentary pyrite proxy for atmospheric oxygen; evaluation of strengths and limitations
Large, R., Mukherjee, I., Danyushevsky, L., Gregory, D., Steadman, J., & Corkrey, R. (2022) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.103941 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationGaboury, D. (2021) · Géosciences · doi:10.3390/geosciences11080344 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“The occurrence of orogenic gold deposits in Neoproterozoic time (Figure 2), such as those in Sudan, which also contain ethane [42], coincides with the reappearance of oxygenic conditions in the oceans [16,60].”
BackgroundWang, Z., Wang, Y., Peng, E.-K., Zou, S.-H., Deng, T., Lai, F., Ning, J., Dong, G., & Xu, D.-R. (2022) · Ore Geology Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2022.104721 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Evidence that the GOE was a prolonged event with a peak around 1900 Ma
Large, R. R., Hazen, R. M., Morrison, S. M., Gregory, D., Steadman, J. A., & Mukherjee, I. (2022) · Geosystems and Geoenvironment · doi:10.1016/j.geogeo.2022.100036 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationOxygen increase and the pacing of early animal evolution
Kaiho, K., Shizuya, A., Kikuchi, M., Komiya, T., Chen, Z.-Q., Tong, J., Tian, L., Gorjan, P., Takahashi, S., Baud, A., et al. (2024) · Global and Planetary Change · doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2024.104364 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Cannell, A., Blamey, N., Brand, U., Escapa, I., & Large, R. (2022) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104062 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationSedimentary exhalative venting of bioavailable nitrogen into the early ocean
Stüeken, E., Gregory, D. D., Mukherjee, I., & McGoldrick, P. (2021) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2021.116963 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“In contrast, surface waters in the mid-Proterozoic were likely well oxygenated (Steadman et al. , 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGaboury, D., Nabil, H., Ennaciri, A., & Maacha, L. (2020) · Soviet Economy · doi:10.1080/00206814.2020.1838336 · Cited by 12
“The occurrence of orogenic gold deposits in Neoproterozoic time, such as those along the KSZ in Sudan, coincides with the reappearance of oxygenic conditions in the oceans (Large et al. 2015; Steadman et al. 2020).”
BackgroundPašava, J., Ackerman, L., Žák, J., Veselovský, F., Creaser, R., Svojtka, M., Luais, B., Pour, O., Šebek, O., Trubač, J., et al. (2021) · Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology · doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.110195 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Ning, G., Wei, J., Yueer, L., & Yu, K. (2025) · Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology · doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2025.113082 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Sindol, G. P., Babechuk, M. G., Conliffe, J., Slack, J. F., Rosca, C., & Schoenberg, R. (2022) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2022.106750 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Precambrian supercontinents and supercycles—an overview
Pesonen, L., Evans, D. A. D., Veikkolainen, T., Salminen, J., & Elming, S. (2021) · Ancient Supercontinents and the Paleogeography of Earth · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818533-9.00020-5 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Bosco-Santos, A., Gilhooly, W., de Melo-Silva, P., Fouskas, F., Bouyon, A., Motta, J., Baldim, M. R., Fabricio-Silva, W., Philippot, P., & Oliveira, E. (2021) · Geoscience Frontiers · doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2021.101250 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…Craton, Western Australia (Ohmoto et al., 2006), supports the observation that the level of atmospheric oxygen fluctuated considerably during the Archean era (Steadman et al., 2020) and that the preservation of the rare sulfur isotope record might be affected by the contemporaneous biosphere.”
BackgroundPlanavsky, N., Hood, A., Tarhan, L., Shen, S., & Johnson, K. (2020) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-020-01366-w · Cited by 9 · see citing works
A billion years of geological drama – Boring or brilliant?
Mukherjee, I., Corkrey, R., Gregory, D. D., Large, R. R., & Poole, A. M. (2025) · Gondwana Research · doi:10.1016/j.gr.2025.02.018 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationFuchsman, C. A., & Stüeken, E. E. (2020) · Environmental Microbiology · doi:10.1111/1462-2920.15220 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Park, J. G., & Schaller, M. F. (2024) · Gondwana Research · doi:10.1016/j.gr.2024.12.003 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
de Lima, M. D., Caxito, F., Large, R., Mukherjee, I., Uhlein, G., Hippertt, J., Moura, S. A., Okubo, J., & Warren, L. (2023) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2023.121625 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationMondal, I., Choudhuri, A., Choudhury, T., Srimani, S., Koner, A., Mandal, S., & Sarkar, S. (2025) · Journal of Palaeogeography · doi:10.1016/j.jop.2025.100259 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Kovalick, A., Heard, A. W., Johnson, A. C., Chan, C. S., Ootes, L., Nielsen, S. G., Dauphas, N., Weber, B., & Bekker, A. (2024) · Geobiology · doi:10.1111/gbi.70003 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“While some recent estimates based on Se/Co in sedimentary pyrites argue for high atmospheric pO 2 in the late Paleoproterozoic, ranging from ~48% to 119% PAL (~10 to 25 wt.%; Large et al. 2019; Steadman et al. 2020), most studies support a much lower atmospheric pO 2 .”
InfluentialMartin, D. M., Mukherjee, I., McCoy‐West, A. J., & Howard, H. M. (2024) · Precambrian Research · doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2024.107377 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationLounejeva, E., Steadman, J., Large, R., Grice, K., Olin, P., & Belousov, I. (2023) · Australian Journal of Earth Sciences · doi:10.1080/08120099.2023.2200476 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…pyrite and some geological and biological processes, such as variation of oxygen levels in the atmosphere–ocean system (Cannell et al., 2022; Steadman et al., 2020), formation of Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs) and mass extinctions (ME) over billions of CONTACT E. Lounejeva…”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe oxygen valve on hydrogen escape since the great oxidation event
Cooke, G. J., Marsh, D. R., Walsh, C. M., Sainsbury-Martinez, F., & Braam, M. (2026) · Climate of the past · doi:10.5194/cp-22-483-2026 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Many uncertainties exist upon the atmospheric pressure and composition throughout the Proterozoic (Lyons et al., 2014; Steadman et al., 2020; Catling and Zahnle, 2020), as well as there being differences in model predictions under similar assumptions (Way et al., 2017; Cooke et al., 2022; Yassin…”
Subarkah, D., Blades, M., Collins, A. S., Farkaš, J., & Virgo, G. M. (2025) · Australian Journal of Earth Sciences · doi:10.1080/08120099.2025.2559364 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Notably, similar levels of oxygen have also been recorded in Proterozoic basins elsewhere (Large et al ., 2019; Mukherjee & Large, 2020; Steadman et al. , 2020; Zhang et al ., 2016), although it should be noted that some of these studies may be susceptible to the incorporation of detrital phases.”
Dora, M., Upadhyay, D., Baswani, S., Meshram, T. M., Mukherjee, M. K., Mahapatro, S., & Randive, K. (2024) · Mineralium Deposita · doi:10.1007/s00126-024-01338-4 · Cited by 2
“This characteristic of pyrite makes it a valuable tool for reconstructing ore-forming processes and deposit characteristics through time and space (Agangi et al. 2013; Reich et al. 2013; Keith et al. 2016; 2018; Steadman et al. 2020).”
Lethal Surface Ozone Concentrations Are Possible on Habitable Zone Exoplanets
Cooke, G., Marsh, D., Walsh, C., & Sainsbury-Martinez, F. (2024) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/ad53c3 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“During the Proterozoic, O 2 concentrations could have ranged between 10 − 5 – 1 times the PAL of O 2 (Large et al. 2019; Catling & Zahnle 2020; Steadman et al. 2020; Lyons et al. 2021).”
BackgroundHudgins, M., Park, J. G., Ryan, A. M., Rogers, J. A., & Schaller, M. F. (2026) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2026.02.039 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Mpaka, Y. W., von der Heyden, B. P., Glynn, S. E., Hurst, G., Lawrence, D., Bampata, T., & Mwandale, E. (2024) · Journal of African Earth Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2024.105244 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sheppard, J., Makoundi, C., Zaw, K., Myint, T., & Win, N. (2026) · Habitable Planet · doi:10.63335/j.hp.2026.0049
“The relationship between estimated atmospheric oxygen and Se/Co ratio in sedimentary pyrite is from [47]: wt% O 2 = 30 P /1 + P , where P = 10 ( 0.89 × log ( Se/Co )+ 0.07 ) .”
InfluentialAnsari, A., Shukla, Y., Singh, G. K., Singh, A. K., Sonker, A., & Ansari, M. A. (2026) · Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Earth and Planetary Sciences · doi:10.1007/s12040-026-02832-1
“For the same reason, we are still far from a robust quanti B cation of the Earth’s past atmospheric oxygen level (Ansari et al. 2020a, b; Chen et al. 2022; Partin et al. 2013; Steadman et al. 2020).”
- Authors
- Steadman, J. A., Large, R. R., Blamey, N. J., Mukherjee, I., Corkrey, R., Danyushevsky, L. V., Maslennikov, V., Hollings, P., Garven, G., Brand, U., & Lécuyer, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Tasmania (AU)
- Western University (CA)
- Lakehead University (CA)
- Tufts University (US)
- Brock University (CA)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- Corresponding author
- Large, R.R.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Precambrian Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-07
- Volume
- 343
- Pages
- 105722
- ISSN
- 0301-9268 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3014804454
- Cited by
- 47
- References
- 117
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 6
- FWCI
- 4.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- figshare.com
- Locations
- Precambrian Research (publishedVersion)
- UTAS Research Repository (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Fossils
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geochemistry and Elemental Analysis
- Keywords
- atmospheric oxygen, Precambrian atmosphere, Great Oxidation Event, ooids, sedimentary pyrite, black shales, redox-sensitive elements, Ediacaran, Lower Cambrian, paleo-oxygenation
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