Environmental and health hazard ranking and assessment of plastic polymers based on chemical composition
Abstract
Plastics constitute a large material group with a global annual production that has doubled in 15 years (245 million tonnes in 2008). Plastics are present everywhere in society and the environment, especially the marine environment, where large amounts of plastic waste accumulate. The knowledge of human and environmental hazards and risks from chemicals associated with the diversity of plastic products is very limited. Most chemicals used for producing plastic polymers are derived from non-renewable crude oil, and several are hazardous. These may be released during the production, use and disposal of the plastic product. In this study the environmental and health hazards of chemicals used in 55 thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers were identified and compiled. A hazard ranking model was developed for the hazard classes and categories in the EU classification and labelling (CLP) regulation which is based on the UN Globally Harmonized System. The polymers were ranked based on monomer hazard classifications, and initial assessments were made. The polymers that ranked as most hazardous are made of monomers classified as mutagenic and/or carcinogenic (category 1A or 1B). These belong to the polymer families of polyurethanes, polyacrylonitriles, polyvinyl chloride, epoxy resins, and styrenic copolymers. All have a large global annual production (1-37 million tonnes). A considerable number of polymers (31 out of 55) are made of monomers that belong to the two worst of the ranking model's five hazard levels, i.e. levels IV-V. The polymers that are made of level IV monomers and have a large global annual production (1-5 million tonnes) are phenol formaldehyde resins, unsaturated polyesters, polycarbonate, polymethyl methacrylate, and urea-formaldehyde resins. This study has identified hazardous substances used in polymer production for which the risks should be evaluated for decisions on the need for risk reduction measures, substitution, or even phase out.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Microplastics have the potential to cause negative physical effects (e.g., food dilution in Daphnia magna) and chemical effects (e.g., plastic additives reduce ecophysiological function in Arenicola marina).
“Concerns surrounding the direct harm of consuming microplastics arises owing to the potential for microplastics to cause negative physical effects (e.g., food dilution in Daphnia magna)62 and chemical effects (e.g., plastic additives reduce ecophysiological function in Arenicola marina).63,64”
From Microplastics and Anthropogenic Particles in Recreationally Caught Freshwater Fish from an Urbanized Region of the North American Great Lakes (2024) · cites this paper as [63]
Cites
Lost at sea: where is all the plastic?
Thompson, R. C., Olsen, Y., Mitchell, R. P., Davis, A., Rowland, S. J., John, A. W. G., McGonigle, D., & Russell, A. E. (2004) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1094559 · Cited by 7,765 · see citing works
Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments
Barnes, D. K. A., Galgani, F., Thompson, R. C., & Barlaz, M. (2009) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0205 · Cited by 6,126 · see citing works
Browne, M. A., Dissanayake, A., Galloway, T. S., Lowe, D. M., & Thompson, R. C. (2008) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es800249a · Cited by 2,263 · see citing works
Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: A rapidly increasing, long-term threat
Moore, C. J. (2008) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2008.07.025 · Cited by 2,130 · see citing works
Plastic Resin Pellets as a Transport Medium for Toxic Chemicals in the Marine Environment
Mato, Y., Isobe, T., Takada, H., Kanehiro, H., OHTAKE, C., & Kaminuma, T. (2000) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es0010498 · Cited by 1,898 · see citing works
A Comparison of Plastic and Plankton in the North Pacific Central Gyre
Moore, C. J., Moore, S., Leecaster, M. K., & Weisberg, S. B. (2001) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/s0025-326x(01)00114-x · Cited by 1,017 · see citing works
(1991) · Additives for Polymers · doi:10.1016/0306-3747(91)90486-6 · Cited by 935 · see citing works
Ogata, Y., Takada, H., Mizukawa, K., Hirai, H., Iwasa, S., Endo, S., Mato, Y., Saha, M., Okuda, K., Nakashima, A., et al. (2009) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.06.014 · Cited by 704 · see citing works
Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS)
(2016) · Globally harmonized system of classification and labelling of chemicals · doi:10.18356/a6a925c3-en · Cited by 511 · see citing works
The Stockholm Convention On Persistent Organic Pollutants
Walls, M. R. (2016) · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Principles of Polymer Chemistry
Ravve, A. (2000) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-4227-8 · Cited by 407 · see citing works
Drifting plastic and its consequences for sessile organism dispersal in the Atlantic Ocean
Barnes, D. K. A., & Milner, P. (2004) · Marine Biology · doi:10.1007/s00227-004-1474-8 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
Wagner, M., & Oehlmann, J. (2009) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-009-0107-7 · Cited by 343 · see citing works
Additives for Plastics Handbook
Murphy, J. (2001) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-85617-370-4.x5000-3 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Leachates from plastic consumer products – Screening for toxicity with Daphnia magna
Lithner, D., Damberg, J., Dave, G., & Larsson, Å. (2008) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.11.022 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Self-citationBiodegradable Polymers and Plastics
(2004) · Chemistry International · doi:10.1515/ci.2004.26.2.30b · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Introduction to Biodeterioration
Allsopp, D., Seal, K. J., & Gaylarde, C. C. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511617065 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Introduction to Green Chemistry
Matlack, A. S. (2010) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781439882115 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
(2005) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.42-6499 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
(1990) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.28-0002 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Nicholson, J. W. (1997) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781839168758 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Techniques for reducing residual monomer content in polymers: A review
de Araújo, P. H. H., Sayer, C., Giudici, R., et al. (2002) · Polymer Engineering and Science · doi:10.1002/pen.11043 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Reactive Polymers Fundamentals and Applications: A Concise Guide to Industrial Polymers
Fink, J. K. (2005) · Cited by 174 · see citing works
(2020) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctv10crf29.7 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
(2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-045371-2.x5001-x · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Plastics materials and processes a concise encyclopedia
Harper, C. A., & Petrie, E. M. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471459216 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Andrady, A. (2005) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471721557 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Fundamentals of polymer degradation and stabilisation
Allen, N. S., & Edge, M. (1992) · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Organic and Physical Chemistry of Polymers
Gnanou, Y., & Fontanille, M. (2007) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470238127 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Plastics additives : an A-Z reference
Pritchard, G. (1998) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-5862-6 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Introduction to Polymer Chemistry
Carraher Jr., C. E. (2010) · doi:10.1201/9780429258305 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Polymer synthesis: theory and practice: fundamentals, methods, experiments
Braun, D. (2005) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.42-5285 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
industrial Plastics: theory and applications
Lokensgard, E. (2017) · Cited by 106 · see citing works
INTRODUCTION TO BIODETERIORATION
Allsopp, D., Seal, K. J., & Gaylarde, C. C. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511617065.002 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Additive Migration from Plastics Into Food
(1979) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2013-0-02988-x · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS)
Nations, U. (2010) · Globally harmonized system of classification and labelling of chemicals · doi:10.18356/244432ff-en · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Introduction to polymer chemistry
(2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-5651 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
M.B., H. (1991) · Journal of Molecular Structure · doi:10.1016/0022-2860(91)87036-h · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Industrial Plastics: Theory and Applications
Richardson, T. (1983) · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Biodegradation of Plastics: Monitoring what Happens
Andrady, A. L. (1998) · Polymer science and technology/Polymer science and technology series · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-5862-6_5 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Biodegradability and Compostability
Innocenti, F. D. (2003) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-9240-6_2 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Rosato, D. V., Rosato, M. G., & Schott, N. R. (2010) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: A review
Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Halsband, C., & Galloway, T. S. (2011) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.09.025 · Cited by 6,023 · see citing works
Hahladakis, J. N., Velis, C. A., Weber, R., Iacovidou, E., & Purnell, P. (2018) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.10.014 · Cited by 3,873 · see citing works
Plastic and Human Health: A Micro Issue?
Wright, S. L., & Kelly, F. J. (2017) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.7b00423 · Cited by 3,413 · see citing works
Microplastic ingestion by zooplankton
Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Fileman, E., Halsband, C., Goodhead, R., Moger, J., & Galloway, T. S. (2013) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es400663f · Cited by 2,763 · see citing works
Alimi, O. S., Farner Budarz, J., Hernandez, L. M., & Tufenkji, N. (2018) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.7b05559 · Cited by 2,668 · see citing works
Classify plastic waste as hazardous
Rochman, C. M., Browne, M. A., Halpern, B. S., Hentschel, B. T., Hoh, E., Karapanagioti, H. K., Rios-Mendoza, L. M., Takada, H., Teh, S., & Thompson, R. C. (2013) · Nature · doi:10.1038/494169a · Cited by 1,752 · see citing works
Rethinking microplastics as a diverse contaminant suite
Rochman, C. M., Brookson, C., Bikker, J., Djuric, N., Earn, A., Bucci, K., Athey, S., Huntington, A., McIlwraith, H., Munno, K., et al. (2019) · Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry · doi:10.1002/etc.4371 · Cited by 1,258 · see citing works
Plastics and microplastics in the oceans: From emerging pollutants to emerged threat
Avio, C. G., Gorbi, S., & Regoli, F. (2017) · Marine Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2016.05.012 · Cited by 1,248 · see citing works
Emergence of Nanoplastic in the Environment and Possible Impact on Human Health
Lehner, R., Weder, C., Petri-Fink, A., & Rothen-Rutishauser, B. (2019) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.8b05512 · Cited by 1,242 · see citing works
Chemical Analysis of Microplastics and Nanoplastics: Challenges, Advanced Methods, and Perspectives
Ivleva, N. P. (2021) · Chemical Reviews · doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00178 · Cited by 1,172 · see citing works
Raman Microspectroscopy Detection and Characterisation of Microplastics in Human Breastmilk
Ragusa, A., Notarstefano, V., Svelato, A., Belloni, A., Gioacchini, G., Blondeel, C., Zucchelli, E., De Luca, C., D’Avino, S., Gulotta, A., et al. (2022) · Polymers · doi:10.3390/polym14132700 · Cited by 853 · see citing works
Deep Dive into Plastic Monomers, Additives, and Processing Aids
Wiesinger, H., Wang, Z., & Hellweg, S. (2021) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.1c00976 · Cited by 724 · see citing works
Sources and sinks of microplastics in Canadian Lake Ontario nearshore, tributary and beach sediments
Ballent, A., Corcoran, P. L., Madden, O., Helm, P. A., & Longstaffe, F. J. (2016) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.037 · Cited by 700 · see citing works
Contamination of beach sediments of a subalpine lake with microplastic particles
Imhof, H. K., Ivleva, N. P., Schmid, J., Niessner, R., & Laforsch, C. (2013) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2013.09.001 · Cited by 699 · see citing works
Bucci, K., Tulio, M., & Rochman, C. M. (2020) · Ecological Applications · doi:10.1002/eap.2044 · Cited by 658 · see citing works
Large Accumulation of Micro-sized Synthetic Polymer Particles in the Sea Surface Microlayer
Song, Y. K., Hong, S. H., Jang, M., Kang, J.-H., Kwon, O. Y., Han, G. M., & Shim, W. J. (2014) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es501757s · Cited by 609 · see citing works
Micro- and nanoplastic induced cellular toxicity in mammals: A review
Banerjee, A., & Shelver, W. L. (2021) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142518 · Cited by 492 · see citing works
Interaction of chemical contaminants with microplastics: principles and perspectives
Fred-Ahmadu, O. H., Bhagwat, G., Oluyoye, I., Benson, N. U., Ayejuyo, O. O., & Palanisami, T. (2020) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135978 · Cited by 505 · see citing works
Green, D. S., Boots, B., Sigwart, J., Jiang, S., & Rocha, C. (2016) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2015.10.010 · Cited by 463 · see citing works
Recycling of multilayer plastic packaging materials by solvent-targeted recovery and precipitation
Walker, T. W., Frelka, N., Shen, Z., Chew, A. K., Banick, J., Grey, S., Kim, M. S., Dumesic, J. A., Van Lehn, R. C., & Huber, G. W. (2020) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aba7599 · Cited by 442 · see citing works
Nobre, C. R., Santana, M. F. M., Maluf, A., Cortez, F. S., Cesar, A., Pereira, C. D. S., & Turra, A. (2015) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.12.050 · Cited by 400 · see citing works
Lee, Y. K., Murphy, K. R., & Hur, J. (2020) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.0c00942 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Wu, J., Jiang, R., Lin, W., & Ouyang, G. (2019) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2018.11.055 · Cited by 309 · see citing works
Effects of polystyrene microbeads in marine planktonic crustaceans
Gambardella, C., Morgana, S., Ferrando, S., Bramini, M., Piazza, V., Costa, E., Garaventa, F., & Faimali, M. (2017) · Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.07.036 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
Dimassi, S. N., Hahladakis, J. N., Yahia, M. N. D., Ahmad, M. I., Sayadi, S., & Al-Ghouti, M. A. (2022) · Arabian Journal of Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.arabjc.2022.104262 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Danopoulos, E., Twiddy, M., West, R., & Rotchell, J. M. (2022) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127861 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Thornton Hampton, L. M., Brander, S. M., Coffin, S., Cole, M., Hermabessiere, L., Koelmans, A. A., & Rochman, C. M. (2022) · Microplastics and Nanoplastics · doi:10.1186/s43591-022-00040-4 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Scherer, C., Wolf, R., Völker, J., Stock, F., Brennhold, N., Reifferscheid, G., & Wagner, M. (2020) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134604 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Li, H.-X., Shi, M., Tian, F., Lin, L., Liu, S., Hou, R., Peng, J.-P., & Xu, X.-R. (2022) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156749 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Ecological and health issues of plastic waste
Cook, C. R., & Halden, R. U. (2020) · Plastic Waste and Recycling · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-817880-5.00020-7 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Boops boops as a Bioindicator of Microplastic Pollution along the Spanish Catalan Coast
Garcia-Garin, O., Vighi, M., Aguilar, A., Tsangaris, C., Digka, N., Kaberi, H., & Borrell, A. (2019) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110648 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Untangling the chemical complexity of plastics to improve life cycle outcomes
Law, K. L., Sobkowicz, M. J., Shaver, M. P., & Hahn, M. E. (2024) · Nature Reviews Materials · doi:10.1038/s41578-024-00705-x · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Earn, A., Bucci, K., & Rochman, C. M. (2021) · Journal of Great Lakes Research · doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2020.11.001 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Sultana, S., Anisuzzaman, M., Hossain, M. K., Rana, M. S., Paray, B. A., Arai, T., Yu, J., & Hossain, M. B. (2024) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116544 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Photoinduced Force Microscopy as an Efficient Method Towards the Detection of Nanoplastics
C. ten Have, I., Duijndam, A. J. A., Oord, R., van Berlo‐van den Broek, H. J. M., Vollmer, I., Weckhuysen, B. M., & Meirer, F. (2021) · Chemistry–Methods · doi:10.1002/cmtd.202100017 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Liu, T.-K., Chang, H., & Chen, Y.-S. (2023) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115456 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Carrillo-Barragán, P., Fitzsimmons, C., Lloyd-Hartley, H., Tinlin-Mackenzie, A., Scott, C., & Sugden, H. (2024) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2023.123060 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Milne, M. H., Helm, P. A., Munno, K., Bhavsar, S. P., & Rochman, C. M. (2024) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp13540 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“63,64 68 However, it is unclear if toxicological e ff ects from either of these mechanisms are occurring in humans, and at what thresholds e ff ects occur.”
System innovation and life cycle thinking in packaging value chain: the circularity of plastics.
Foschi, E. (2020) · amsdottorato · doi:10.48676/unibo/amsdottorato/9460 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
- Authors
- Lithner, D., Larsson, Å., & Dave, G.
- Affiliations
- University of Gothenburg (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Lithner, Delilah
- ORCID
- Larsson, Åke
- Venue
- Science of The Total Environment
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-08
- Volume
- 409
- Issue
- 18
- Pages
- 3309-3324
- ISSN
- 0048-9697 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2160916596
- Cited by
- 2,684
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 431 · 2025: 482 · 2024: 450 · 2023: 352 · 2022: 245 · 2021: 185 · 2020: 141 · 2019: 129 · 2018: 77 · 2017: 56 · 2016: 42 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 205.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Science of The Total Environment (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- The Science of The Total Environment
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Chemical Engineering › Chemical Health and Safety › Chemical Safety and Risk Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Microplastics and Plastic Pollution
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Keywords
- plastic polymers, hazard classification, CLP regulation, Globally Harmonized System, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, thermoplastics, thermosetting polymers, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride, epoxy resin, phenolic resin, chemical risk assessment, plastic waste, marine plastic pollution, chemical substitution
- MeSH terms
- Environmental Pollutants, Humans, Models, Chemical, Plastics, Polymers, Hazardous Substances, Risk Assessment
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
