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Perceived social isolation and cognition
Open accessAbstract
Social species, from Drosophila melanogaster to Homo sapiens, fare poorly when isolated. Homo sapiens, an irrepressibly meaning-making species, are, in normal circumstances, dramatically affected by perceived social isolation. Research indicates that perceived social isolation (i.e. loneliness) is a risk factor for, and may contribute to, poorer overall cognitive performance, faster cognitive decline, poorer executive functioning, increased negativity and depressive cognition, heightened sensitivity to social threats, a confirmatory bias in social cognition that is self-protective and paradoxically self-defeating, heightened anthropomorphism and contagion that threatens social cohesion. These differences in attention and cognition impact on emotions, decisions, behaviors and interpersonal interactions that can contribute to the association between loneliness and cognitive decline and between loneliness and morbidity more generally.
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“Each of these reviews reports equivocal findings regarding the association between aspects of social connections and cognitive function from both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies.”
From Social Isolation and Cognitive Function in Later Life: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2019) · cites this paper as [52]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Lonely individuals also struggle to use their social skills (Knowles et al., 2015) and approach social situations in a more defensive manner (Cacioppo et al., 2006;Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2009), such that even if they are motivated to seek connections with others, these attempts to reconnect may not be successful.”
From Investigating the interplay of loneliness and social isolation across adolescence: Findings from a nationally representative longitudinal study (2026) · cites this paper as Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2009
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Our model of loneliness [8, 9] posits that perceived social isolation is tantamount to feeling unsafe, and this sets off implicit hypervigilance for (additional) social threat in the environment.”
From Loneliness matters: a theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms (2010) · cites this paper as [9]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“relative to nonlonely people, lonely individuals see the social world as a more threatening place, expect more negative social interactions, and remember more negative social information.”
From Loneliness matters: a theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms (2010) · cites this paper as [9]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Social evaluative threat is known to be a potent elicitor of cortisol [74], and our theory that loneliness is characterized by chronic threat of and hypervigilance for negative social evaluation [9] is consistent with the finding that loneliness predicts increased cortisol awakening response.”
From Loneliness matters: a theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms (2010) · cites this paper as [9]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Loneliness is not merely the absence of social contact. Rather, it refers to a perceived gap between desired and actual social connection, and it is therefore closely related to unmet belongingness and relatedness needs (Baumeister and Leary, 1995; Cacioppo and Hawkley, 2009).”
From When loneliness amplifies the risk of problematic emotional dependence: perceived anthropomorphism and basic psychological need satisfaction in AI companion use (2026) · cites this paper as Cacioppo and Hawkley, 2009
In the citing paper
“the effects of perceived isolation in these longitudinal studies share much in common with the effects of experimental manipulations of isolation in nonhuman social species: increased tonic sympathetic tonus and HPA activation and decreased inflammatory control and immunity; expression of genes regulating glucocorticoid responses; and glucocorticoid resistance.”
From Social isolation (2011) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“perceived social isolation is a more important determinant of deleterious outcomes than is the variation in objective social isolation that is seen in population based studies”
From Social isolation (2011) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“After 25 generations of selective breeding, differences in behavior between the two lines of rats were reminiscent of some of the differences observed in humans who are high or low in perceived isolation:22 the high, relative to low, USV line showed more distress to isolation as an infant; greater latency to play as an adolescent; and greater depression-like behaviors, greater anxiety-like Behavi”
From Social isolation (2011) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“a second exogenous social loop (Arc 2) in which altered behaviors evoke more suspicious, distant, and hostile responses from the surrounding social environment [1].”
From Human Social Genomics (2014) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“In particular, across research studies, the overall effect size of loneliness on mortality is difficult to summarize due to the lack of uniform measures of loneliness [5], differences in the inclusion of statistical controls [26], and the use of analytic procedures that ignore survival time and censored data [24].”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [26]
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Citations
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Loneliness in the Daily Lives of People With Mood and Psychotic Disorders
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Metadata
- Authors
- Cacioppo, J. T., & Hawkley, L. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Corresponding author
- Cacioppo, John T.
- Venue
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-10
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 447-454
- ISSN
- 1364-6613 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2752489
- OpenAlex
- W2131334268
- Cited by
- 2,144
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 284 · 2025: 270 · 2024: 202 · 2023: 185 · 2022: 196 · 2021: 202 · 2020: 175 · 2019: 116 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 95 · 2016: 71 · 2015: 76 · 2014: 57 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 37
- FWCI
- 3.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99 RG999999)
- National Institute on Aging (P01AG18911, P01AG018911, R01AG034052)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- perceived social isolation, loneliness, cognitive decline, executive function, depressive cognitions, confirmation bias, anthropomorphism, social contagion, social cohesion, attention, morbidity
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Cognition, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Loneliness, Neural Pathways, Neuropsychological Tests, Problem Solving, Social Isolation, Social Perception
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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