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Measuring and using light in the melanopsin age
Open accessAbstract
Light is a potent stimulus for regulating circadian, hormonal, and behavioral systems. In addition, light therapy is effective for certain affective disorders, sleep problems, and circadian rhythm disruption. These biological and behavioral effects of light are influenced by a distinct photoreceptor in the eye, melanopsin-containing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), in addition to conventional rods and cones. We summarize the neurophysiology of this newly described sensory pathway and consider implications for the measurement, production, and application of light. A new light-measurement strategy taking account of the complex photoreceptive inputs to these non-visual responses is proposed for use by researchers, and simple suggestions for artificial/architectural lighting are provided for regulatory authorities, lighting manufacturers, designers, and engineers.
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“For this reason, it has recently been proposed that lux is an inappropriate measure for estimation of the impact of light on melatonin suppression, circadian-phase shifting, and other non -imageforming effects of retinal light exposure (35).”
From Evening use of light-emitting eReaders negatively affects sleep, circadian timing, and next-morning alertness. (2015) · cites this paper as [35]
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“They also exhibit beneficial actions on cardiovascular health by enhancing endothelial function, maintaining metabolic homeostasis,38 and reducing inflammation.39,40”
From Total and Cause-Specific Mortality of U.S. Nurses Working Rotating Night Shifts (2015) · cites this paper as [40]
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BackgroundMethodInfluentialIL-6 after wake-up in human males: Exposure to red versus blue light and the interplay with cortisol
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“…sensitivity and describe the amount of light (in photopic lux) needed to produce a certain photo-pigment-speci fi c ( α -opic) illuminance value (Lucas et al., 2014, 2024; Peirson, Brown, Pothecary, Benson, & Fisk, 2018). α -opic irradiances of green and red LED lights for the mouse…”
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“(Lucas et al., 2014).”
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Khaira, H. K., Kochhar, S., Aneja, J., Verma, M., Rajendran, R., & Thind, A. (2025) · International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health · doi:10.1515/ijamh-2024-0189 · Cited by 3
Ghosh, M., Palaniswamy, H. P., Nishitha, G., Joylin, S., Shwetha, T. S., Sanjana, M., Radhika, R. P., & Theruveethi, N. (2025) · Neurobiology of Sleep and Circadian Rhythms · doi:10.1016/j.nbscr.2025.100119 · Cited by 1
“…from dark and non-classical photoreceptors (non-visual) sensory functions for the circadian system the intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) dedicated to regulating behaviour and physiology due to its presence of photopigment-melanopsin (Lucas et al., 2014; W ¨ assle, 2004).”
Jalali, M. S., Gibbons, R. B., & Jones, J. R. (2025) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings15152665 · Cited by 2
Son, J. J. (2025) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph22091436 · Cited by 1
Li, Y., Fang, W., Jiang, T. X., Yu, H., Zhao, R., Zhan, W., Sun, Z., & Li, Y. (2025) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140139.2025.2544814 · Cited by 1
“Moreover, the photometric values for the typical ccts at the eye level were calculated with the α-opic tool-box (table 1) (lucas et al. 2014).”
Ibarra, R. E. V., Soberón, S. D. R. A., Morocho, L. N. A., Yajaira, L. R. P., & Valdiviezo, S. V. L. (2025) · Arandu-UTIC. · doi:10.69639/arandu.v12i3.1597 · Cited by 1
Nowacka, A., Śniegocki, M., Bożiłow, D., & Ziółkowska, E. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms262110766 · Cited by 2
Ibrahimi, D., & García‐Martínez, J. R. (2025) · Clinics and Practice · doi:10.3390/clinpract16010003 · Cited by 1
“Dose computation and safety are anchored in α -opic metrology and photobiological/flicker standards [46–49], alongside integrative guidance on non-visual responses [50,51].”
Ardabili, N. G., & Wang, J. (2026) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2026.114239 · Cited by 1
Favero, F., Bresin, R., Löwden, A., & Muro, R. (2026) · LEUKOS The Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America · doi:10.1080/15502724.2025.2609621 · Cited by 2
“The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) published a standard (CIE 2018) that defines spectral sensitivity functions of optical radiation that contribute to physiological stimulation (see also Lucas et al. 2014).”
Shu, F. (2026) · BIO Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/bioconf/202621401014 · Cited by 1
“Pressing sodium lamps currently used to provide street lighting emit a narrow band of light around 589 nm that results in relatively low melanopic irradiance at the human eye[2].”
Qureshi, J., & Hemarathne, T. (2026) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings16081591 · Cited by 1
S-Cone Retinal Pathway Dysfunction in Myopia
Khanal, S., & Dhakal, R. (2026) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.67.4.59 · Cited by 1
Cao, Z., Du, H., Zhou, Y., Mei, S., Xia, Z., & Wang, Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2026.1790010 · Cited by 1
“Appropriate light exposure may help entrain the biological clock and support sleep–wake cycle organization, which could in turn be relevant to maintaining arousal and consciousness (Gooley et al., 2011; Lucas et al., 2014).”
Linders, I. K., Leonard, F. R., Goldsworthy, A., Tronstad, O., & Garcia-Hansen, V. (2026) · Intensive and Critical Care Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.iccn.2026.104421 · Cited by 1
Piazena, H., Franke, L., Uebelhack, R., Penzel, T., & Fietze, I. (2026) · Photochemistry and Photobiology · doi:10.1111/php.70115 · Cited by 1
Zhang, B., Qiu, J., Zeng, X., Ma, Z., Chen, S., Wen, Z., Shi, Q., & Lin, Y. (2026) · Environmental Impact Assessment Review · doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2026.108591 · Cited by 1
Bonatto, F., Macedo, P. E. D. O., Borges, R. B., Skalnes, K., Pilz, L. K., Correia, R. R. B., do Amaral, F. G., & Hidalgo, M. P. L. (2026) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2026.2691091 · Cited by 1
“This agreement likely reflects the fact that under typical mid-day outdoor light, the melanopic-to-photopic ratio is close to 1 (Lucas et al. 2014; CIE 2018; Schlangen and Price 2021).”
Grytz, R., Hamdaoui, M. E., Yamashita, T., D’Souza, S. P., Allah, M. K., Inanici, M. N., & Lang, R. A. (2026) · Cell Reports Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.xcrm.2026.102999 · Cited by 1
Optimizing dynamic lighting for visual and non‑visual impact with emphasis on power efficiency
Ansari, M. A., & White, J. D. (2026) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2026.115188 · Cited by 1
Bessman, S. C., Harrison, E. M., Wilkerson, A., Herf, M., Pattison, M., Vetter, C., & Glickman, G. L. (2026) · npj Biological Timing and Sleep · doi:10.1038/s44323-026-00110-3 · Cited by 1
“This internationally balloted consensus-based method of measurement and reporting simultaneously offers both precision and fl exibility 3,4 .”
Cao, D., & Barrionuevo, P. A. (2015) · SID Symposium Digest of Technical Papers · doi:10.1002/sdtp.10193 · Cited by 1
“Recently, new approaches were proposed to cope with this issue by considering melanopsin activation [33, 34].”
BackgroundHuman Melatonin Suppression in Response to Silent Substitution Stimuli of Photoreceptors
Fukuda, Y., Kai, A., Tsujimura, S., Higuchi, S., & Morita, T. (2017) · Journal of Science and Technology in Lighting · doi:10.2150/jstl.ieij160000593 · Cited by 1
Light therapy in medicine: where do we stand?
Oyama, Y., Witowski, A., Adamzik, M., Bartels, K., & de la Garza Eckle, T. (2026) · Annals of Translational Medicine · doi:10.21037/atm-2026-0041
“Defined as the use of specific wavelengths of light to treat medical conditions, light therapy encompasses modalities such as blue or red light for skin conditions and intense bright full-spectrum light (10,000 lux) for mood and circadian rhythm regulation (4).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Lucas, R. J., Peirson, S. N., Berson, D. M., Brown, T. M., Cooper, H. M., Czeisler, C. A., Figueiro, M. G., Gamlin, P. D., Lockley, S. W., O’Hagan, J. B., Price, L. L. A., Provencio, I., Skene, D. J., & Brainard, G. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Manchester (GB)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Brown University (US)
- Inserm (FR)
- Brigham and Women's Hospital (US)
- Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (US)
- University of Alabama at Birmingham (US)
- Public Health England (GB)
- University of Virginia (US)
- University of Surrey (GB)
- Thomas Jefferson University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lucas, Robert J.
- Brainard, George C.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Trends in Neurosciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-01
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-9
- ISSN
- 0166-2236 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4699304
- OpenAlex
- W2106496774
- Cited by
- 1,278
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 118 · 2025: 119 · 2024: 110 · 2023: 108 · 2022: 108 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 115 · 2019: 136 · 2018: 107 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 68 · 2015: 58 · 2014: 20
- FWCI
- 5.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Trends in Neurosciences (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- The Medicine Forum (submittedVersion)
- Surrey Research Insight Open Access (The University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/I021086/1, BB/I007296/1, BB/K002252/1, BB/I017836/1)
- National Eye Institute (R01EY012793, R01EY017137)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Impact of Light on Environment and Health
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Light effects on plants
- Keywords
- melanopsin, intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, non-visual photoreception, circadian regulation, phototherapy, light measurement, artificial lighting design, circadian rhythm disruption, mood disorders, sleep disorders
- MeSH terms
- Melanopsin, Animals, Circadian Rhythm, Humans, Photoreceptor Cells, Phototherapy, Retinal Ganglion Cells, Rod Opsins
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