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Measuring and using light in the melanopsin age
Open accessAbstract
Light is a potent stimulus for regulating circadian, hormonal, and behavioral systems. In addition, light therapy is effective for certain affective disorders, sleep problems, and circadian rhythm disruption. These biological and behavioral effects of light are influenced by a distinct photoreceptor in the eye, melanopsin-containing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), in addition to conventional rods and cones. We summarize the neurophysiology of this newly described sensory pathway and consider implications for the measurement, production, and application of light. A new light-measurement strategy taking account of the complex photoreceptive inputs to these non-visual responses is proposed for use by researchers, and simple suggestions for artificial/architectural lighting are provided for regulatory authorities, lighting manufacturers, designers, and engineers.
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“For this reason, it has recently been proposed that lux is an inappropriate measure for estimation of the impact of light on melatonin suppression, circadian-phase shifting, and other non -imageforming effects of retinal light exposure (35).”
From Evening use of light-emitting eReaders negatively affects sleep, circadian timing, and next-morning alertness. (2015) · cites this paper as [35]
In the citing paper
“They also exhibit beneficial actions on cardiovascular health by enhancing endothelial function, maintaining metabolic homeostasis,38 and reducing inflammation.39,40”
From Total and Cause-Specific Mortality of U.S. Nurses Working Rotating Night Shifts (2015) · cites this paper as [40]
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Cites
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MethodInfluentialYellow Filter Effect on Melatonin Secretion in the Eye: Role in IOP Regulation
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“As melatonin is a sleep-promoting hormone, its suppression promotes wakefulness (Lucas et al., 2014).”
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BackgroundBiologically Relevant Lighting: An Industry Perspective
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“This situation will be favourable for improving indoor performance in the morning hours; however, in the afternoon and at night, it will be more convenient to use warm lighting with low melanopic intensity [9,15].”
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Clocking Epilepsies: A Chronomodulated Strategy-Based Therapy for Rhythmic Seizures
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“Other changes are not often visible, yet circadian rhythmicity is found in almost every physiological, metabolic, and behavioral system, for example core body temperature (Lucas et al., 2014).”
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Circadian and visual photometry
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Self-citationReal-Time Investigations and Simulation on the Impact of Lighting Ambience on Circadian Stimulus
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“A recent publication authored by many experts in the field outlined the need for a new metric to include biological effects also in architectural settings (Lucas et al., 2014).”
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The effects of ambient light on task switching depend on the chronotype
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BackgroundModification of a personal dosimetry device for logging melanopic irradiance
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“As a result of increasing knowledge of the field, different models and sensitivity functions for estimating the non-image-forming effects of light radiation have been proposed, although recent findings provide a more complex picture of how light radiation of different intensities and spectral compositions affects the…”
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“” γα,v Converts illuminance, Ev , to α-opic EDI: Ev,α = Ev . γα,v where γα,v = Kα,v / Kα,v D65D65 D65 D65D65 Advanced Outputs – Reference source values 26 Reference source values are shown matched to the input for the test source Reference source (automatic) = Daylight (D65) for CIE S 026 mode Equi-energy (E) for Luca…”
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Self-citationRegional response to light illuminance across the human hypothalamusPreprint
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“As such, it is always recommended that the spectral power distribution of the light source is properly characterized in any circadian or sleep study (Lucas et al., 2014).”
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“Establishing criteria for non-visual goals is complicated because our understanding of these processes is still emerging, as Lucas explains [43]:”
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“, 2021), and the influence of the wavelength of light may be unique for different types of photoreceptors (Berson et al., 2002; Lall et al., 2010; Lucas et al., 2014).”
BackgroundExploring light and colour patterns for remote biophilic northern architecture
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“87 The physiological effects of light and colour interaction were determined by measuring Equivalent Melanopic Lux levels developed by Lucas et al., 89 an alternate metric that is weighted to the ipRGCs.”
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“Although this approach involves a certain simplification of the problem, because it does not take into account the spatial distribution of the radiance entering the eye [30], it was instrumental for enabling the first proposals of physiologicallybased magnitudes describing non-visual inputs [25-29], and quantitative m…”
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“480 nm, the wavelength most effective in suppressing melatonin secretion (for a recent review see Lucas et al., 2014).”
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“The most widely used is the Circadian Stimulus [11], expressing biologically weighted effects and the weighted luminous values expressed through melanopic lux [12].”
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Smart Lighting Clinical Testbed Pilot Study on Circadian Phase Advancement
Gleason, J. D., Oishi, M., Simkulet, M. D., Tuzikas, A., Hanifin, J. P., Brainard, G. C., Brueck, S. R. J., Karlicek, R. F., & Brown, L. K. (2019) · IEEE Journal of Translational Engineering in Health and Medicine · doi:10.1109/jtehm.2019.2937957 · Cited by 10
“The photopigment parameters were computed from spectral power measurements using a freely available, web-based toolbox [40].”
MethodSelf-citationIruzubieta, P., Cantarero, I., Monzón, M., Lahoz, M., & Junquera, C. (2020) · Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s10571-020-01017-8 · Cited by 9
Broszio, K., Knoop, M., Niedling, M., & Völker, S. (2018) · Light & Engineering · doi:10.33383/2018-003 · Cited by 9
The Impact of Evaluated Daylight to the Total Light Ratio on the Comfort Level in Office Buildings
Fakhari, M., Fayaz, R., & Lollini, R. (2022) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings12122161 · Cited by 9
Light exposure in home-based work: Can a simple lighting system increase alertness?
Rolf, H., Udovičić, L., & Völker, S. (2023) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/14771535231158029 · Cited by 9
Potočnik, J., & Košir, M. (2023) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings13051357 · Cited by 9
Martin, J. T., Boynton, G. M., Baker, D. H., Wade, A. R., & Spitschan, M. (2023) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/jov.23.7.10 · Cited by 9
“…into melanopsin-containing ipRGCs (e.g., Al Enezi et al., 2011; Berson et al., 2002; Brown et al., 2013; Dacey et al., 2005; Gamlin et al., 2007; Lucas et al., 2014; Provencio et al., 2000; Spitschan, 2019), the CIE released an International Standard—CIE S 026/E:2018 (CIE, 2018)—that includes…”
Gubin, D. G., & Weinert, D. (2016) · Advances in Gerontology · doi:10.1134/s2079057016010057 · Cited by 9
Public Lighting, Public Health
Maierová, L. (2018) · Lighting Conference of the Visegrad Countries (Lumen V4) · doi:10.1109/lumenv.2018.8521032 · Cited by 9
“Whereas the photopic vision combines the stimuli from three types of cones and its peak sensitivity is in the green part of the spectra, approximately 555 nm and scotopic vision sensitivity peaks around 500 nm, the ipRGCs are highly sensitive to the blue part of the spectrum, with a peak at 460 – 480 nm [4, 17].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMechanisms mediating the effects of light on sleep and alertness: current challenges
Tam, S. K. E., Bannerman, D. M., & Peirson, S. N. (2020) · Current Opinion in Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cophys.2020.01.005 · Cited by 9
Self-citationMehri, A., Golmohammadi, R., Aliabadi, M., Farhadian, M., Bullough, J. D., & Samavati, M. (2023) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/14771535231203570 · Cited by 8
“…vision may vary with different CCTs. Boyce and Bruno 69 showed that in exposure to MH and HPS of different CCT (2100 K and 4250 K) and CRI (22 and 65) at 27 500 lumens and 50 000 lumens in mesopic environments, achromatic contrast sensitivity in the central field of view did not differ with…”
Blue Light of the Digital Era: A Comparative Study of Devices
Hipólito, V., & Coelho, J. M. P. (2024) · Photonics · doi:10.3390/photonics11010093 · Cited by 8
“It is also essential to highlight that this study, as it is a preliminary analysis to test methodologies, is not free from limitations:”
Peña-García, A., Martínez, A. C., & Ernst, S. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su16104028 · Cited by 8
Pandey, S. K., Gandhi, S., & Murthy, Y. I. (2024) · Anti-Corrosion Methods and Materials · doi:10.1108/acmm-01-2024-2950 · Cited by 8
Light at night and circadian rhythms: from the perspective of physiological anthropology research
Higuchi, S. (2024) · Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY · doi:10.1186/s40101-024-00380-5 · Cited by 10
“The effects of light depend on the intensity, wavelength, time of exposure, and duration of exposure [1].”
Ticleanu, C., Flores-Villa, L., Littlefair, P. J., & Howlett, G. (2025) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/14771535251317740 · Cited by 9
“26 and gave recommendations in EML, but later also added recommendations in melanopic EDI.”
Zhang, X., Ma, L., Chen, J., Fu, J., Wang, J., Wang, Y., Zhu, M., Yu, M., & Chen, D. (2025) · Displays · doi:10.1016/j.displa.2025.103038 · Cited by 8
Sánchez-Cano, A. I., Bartolomé, M. J. L., & Solanas, E. (2025) · Life · doi:10.3390/life15050715 · Cited by 11
“The characteristics and responses of all five photoreceptor types have been extensively documented [9].”
Human trichromacy and refractive development
Gawne, T. J., She, Z., & Khanal, S. (2025) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2025.108632 · Cited by 8
Nardecchia, F., Barbalace, M., Bisegna, F., Burattini, C., Gugliermetti, F., Vollaro, A. D. L., Salata, F., & Golasi, I. (2015) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su71114964 · Cited by 8
Nie, J., Chen, Z., Chen, Y., Pan, Z., Deng, C., Zhang, H., Xi, X., Chen, W., Kang, X., Wang, Y., et al. (2022) · Optics & Laser Technology · doi:10.1016/j.optlastec.2022.108565 · Cited by 8
Improving the accuracy of circadian lighting simulation with field measurement
He, S., Yan, Y., & Cai, H. (2022) · Journal of Building Performance Simulation · doi:10.1080/19401493.2022.2071466 · Cited by 10
“The mel-EDI was introduced in CIE S026-2018 (Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage 2018) and initially proposed by Lucas et al. (2014) and Enezi et al. (2011) as the illuminance of standard daylight (D65) that provides equal melanopic irradiance as the test source, as shown in Equation (1).”
MethodNixon, A., Robillard, R., Leveille, C., Douglass, A. B., Porteous, M., & Veitch, J. A. (2023) · LEUKOS The Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America · doi:10.1080/15502724.2023.2219017 · Cited by 9
“In order to improve comparability and replicability of studies, Lucas et al. (2014) proposed that effective irradiance of a light source should be calculated for each photoreceptor type.”
BackgroundPupil responses to hidden photoreceptor–specific modulations in movies
Spitschan, M., Gardasevic, M., Martial, F. P., Lucas, R. J., & Allen, A. E. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216307 · Cited by 8
“All 49 photoreceptors are thought to contribute to visual function, though their exact contributions in 50 naturalistic behaviour depend on the spatial and temporal characteristics of the input into the 51 retina, and the task at hand [6].”
BackgroundSelf-citationParameter Estimation in a Model of the Human Circadian Pacemaker Using a Particle Filter
Bonarius, J. H., Papatsimpa, C., & Linnartz, J. M. G. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2020.3026538 · Cited by 8
“Moreover, illuminance (in lux) is not the best way to measure light that influences the circadian rhythm, as suggested in e.g. [33].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Lucas, R. J., Peirson, S. N., Berson, D. M., Brown, T. M., Cooper, H. M., Czeisler, C. A., Figueiro, M. G., Gamlin, P. D., Lockley, S. W., O’Hagan, J. B., Price, L. L. A., Provencio, I., Skene, D. J., & Brainard, G. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Manchester (GB)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Brown University (US)
- Inserm (FR)
- Brigham and Women's Hospital (US)
- Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (US)
- University of Alabama at Birmingham (US)
- Public Health England (GB)
- University of Virginia (US)
- University of Surrey (GB)
- Thomas Jefferson University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lucas, Robert J.
- Brainard, George C.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Trends in Neurosciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-01
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-9
- ISSN
- 0166-2236 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4699304
- OpenAlex
- W2106496774
- Cited by
- 1,278
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 118 · 2025: 119 · 2024: 110 · 2023: 108 · 2022: 108 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 115 · 2019: 136 · 2018: 107 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 68 · 2015: 58 · 2014: 20
- FWCI
- 5.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Trends in Neurosciences (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- The Medicine Forum (submittedVersion)
- Surrey Research Insight Open Access (The University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/I021086/1, BB/I007296/1, BB/K002252/1, BB/I017836/1)
- National Eye Institute (R01EY012793, R01EY017137)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Impact of Light on Environment and Health
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Light effects on plants
- Keywords
- melanopsin, intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, non-visual photoreception, circadian regulation, phototherapy, light measurement, artificial lighting design, circadian rhythm disruption, mood disorders, sleep disorders
- MeSH terms
- Melanopsin, Animals, Circadian Rhythm, Humans, Photoreceptor Cells, Phototherapy, Retinal Ganglion Cells, Rod Opsins
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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