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Measuring and using light in the melanopsin age
Open accessAbstract
Light is a potent stimulus for regulating circadian, hormonal, and behavioral systems. In addition, light therapy is effective for certain affective disorders, sleep problems, and circadian rhythm disruption. These biological and behavioral effects of light are influenced by a distinct photoreceptor in the eye, melanopsin-containing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), in addition to conventional rods and cones. We summarize the neurophysiology of this newly described sensory pathway and consider implications for the measurement, production, and application of light. A new light-measurement strategy taking account of the complex photoreceptive inputs to these non-visual responses is proposed for use by researchers, and simple suggestions for artificial/architectural lighting are provided for regulatory authorities, lighting manufacturers, designers, and engineers.
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“For this reason, it has recently been proposed that lux is an inappropriate measure for estimation of the impact of light on melatonin suppression, circadian-phase shifting, and other non -imageforming effects of retinal light exposure (35).”
From Evening use of light-emitting eReaders negatively affects sleep, circadian timing, and next-morning alertness. (2015) · cites this paper as [35]
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“They also exhibit beneficial actions on cardiovascular health by enhancing endothelial function, maintaining metabolic homeostasis,38 and reducing inflammation.39,40”
From Total and Cause-Specific Mortality of U.S. Nurses Working Rotating Night Shifts (2015) · cites this paper as [40]
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“…light information is conveyed directly to SCN neurons by the glutamatergic retino-hypothalamic tract (Lokshin et al., 2015; Fernandez et al., 2016) through the activity of specialised melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells (Meijer & Rietveld, 1989; Schmidt et al., 2011; Lucas et al., 2014).”
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PupilEXT: Flexible Open-Source Platform for High-Resolution Pupillometry in Vision Research
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BackgroundTowards a framework for light-dosimetry studies: Quantification metrics
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“14”
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“Description of the melanopic sensitivity of the KSS response gives a clear practical value (Lucas et al., 2014).”
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“After driving, they TABLE 1 | photometric values of the light source at eye level, estimated through the Excel toolbox from Lucas et al. (2014).”
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Self-citationJakubiec, J. A., Quek, G., & Srisamranrungruang, T. (2020) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/1477153520926528 · Cited by 33
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“Although the blue light emission of the measured devices did not show high values that should be a cause for concern for eye diseases, these levels could influence circadian rhythms and sleep quality [26,27].”
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“[15], and the CIE model assume equal-energetic and D65 theoretical illuminants, respectively, as references for their calculations.”
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“As described in the Methodology section, melanopic reflectance is calculated using the Lucas response curve (Lucas et al. 2014) which places the data in this section in agreement with the measures proposed by CIE Standard S 026 which uses the same response function (CIE 2018a).”
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“Regarding this last one, the spectral sensitivity of the nonvisual system differs from that of the visual system, and peaks in the short-wavelength portion of the visible spectrum due to the contribution of the ipRGCs (Lucas et al. 2014).”
BackgroundEffects of light exposure at night during development
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“Daily patterns of light exposure reflect individual preferences and societal requirements (29, 35).”
BackgroundA Protocol to Determine Circadian Phase by At‐Home Salivary Dim Light Melatonin Onset Assessment
Murray, J. M., Stone, J. E., Abbott, S. M., Bjorvatn, B., Burgess, H. J., Cajochen, C., Dekker, J. J., Duffy, J. F., Epstein, L. J., Garbazza, C., et al. (2024) · Journal of Pineal Research · doi:10.1111/jpi.12994 · Cited by 34
“…and described in previous studies using photopic lux, this measurement unit does not reflect the peak response of the circadian system to light [73, 74], and as such, estimations of melanopic equivalent daylight illuminance (EDI) [75] and photopic lux provide a more accurate reflection of the…”
Self-citationMethods to Evaluate Lighting Quality in Educational Environments
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“Therefore, light photoreception is not only sensitive to irradiance levels (melanopsin phototransduction is only engaged at moderate to high irradiance(5)), but also has spectral sensitivity, defined by the spectral efficiency of the photopigments expressed within rods, cones and ipRGCs.(6) This means that environment…”
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InfluentialRole of Architectural Design in Creating Circadian-Effective Interior Settings
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Light Effects on Behavioural Performance Depend on the Individual State of Vigilance
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“Although it is recognized that non-visual responses to light involve a distinct pathway from visual responses to light [17], the use of light-measuring devices that report photopic illuminance remains widespread in circadian research.”
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“These ipRGC functions might be impaired in patients with glaucoma, leading to worse quality of life.”
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“In addition, a monochromatic light in the green spectrum is often used as the excitatory for conventional photoreceptors (medium wavelength cones, M-cones have a peak sensitivity at 508 nm in mice and 535 nm in humans; and long wavelength cones; L-cones have a peak sensitivity at 565 nm in humans [61], Figure 1).”
BackgroundAnalysis of Photopic and Melanopic Lighting in Teaching Environments
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Melanopsin+RGCs Are fully Resistant to NMDA-Induced Excitotoxicity
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“is associated with melatonin suppression [26].”
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Self-citationLighting scheme recommendation for interior workplace to adjust the phase-advance jet lag
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Homeostatic plasticity in the retina
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“There have been several proposals for incorporating this novel dimension of photoreception (Lucas et al., 2014).”
BackgroundA Wrist-Worn Internet of Things Sensor Node for Wearable Equivalent Daylight Illuminance Monitoring
Mohammadian, N., Didikoğlu, A., Beach, C., Wright, P., Mouland, J. W., Martial, F. P., Johnson, S. J., van Tongeren, M., Brown, T. M., Lucas, R. J., et al. (2024) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2024.3355330 · Cited by 30
“Here, the effective irradiance for each of the five individual photoreceptors (rods, L-cones, M-cones, S-cones and ipRGCs) are referred to as the α -opic irradiance [18].”
BackgroundSelf-citationOuk, K., Hughes, S., Pothecary, C. A., Peirson, S. N., & Morton, A. J. (2016) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddw359 · Cited by 26
Self-citationHartstein, L. E., LeBourgeois, M. K., & Berthier, N. E. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0202973 · Cited by 30
“It should be noted, however, that the calculations for effective illuminance were based off of photopigment absorption for an adult observer [24] and values for young children may differ.”
BackgroundMethodSynergies and Trade-Offs Between Sustainable Development and Energy Performance of Exterior Lighting
Jägerbrand, A. K. (2020) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en13092245 · Cited by 26
Yeh, C. Y., Koehl, K. L., Harman, C. D., Iwabe, S., Guzman, J. M., Petersen‐Jones, S. M., Kardon, R. H., & Komáromy, A. M. (2017) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.16-19865 · Cited by 28
Disrupted Circadian Rhythms and Substance Use Disorders: A Narrative Review
Sharma, P., & Nelson, R. J. (2024) · Clocks & Sleep · doi:10.3390/clockssleep6030030 · Cited by 29
“The photopigment activated by light in the ipRGCs is melanopsin [6,7], which is maximally sensitive to short wavelength (blue) light, with λ max at approximately 480 nm (peak sensitivity from 447 to 484 nm) [8,9].”
BackgroundWest, A. S., Sennels, H. P., Simonsen, S. A., Schønsted, M., Zielinski, A. H., Hansen, N. C., Jennum, P., Sander, B., Wolfram, F., & Iversen, H. K. (2019) · International Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.7150/ijms.28863 · Cited by 26
Biophilic school architecture in cold climates
Watchman, M., Demers, C. M. H., & Potvin, A. (2020) · Indoor and Built Environment · doi:10.1177/1420326x20908308 · Cited by 25
“Although various metrics exist to characterise and quantify the non-visual effects of light on the circadian system, the approximated measures appear sufficient to draft guidelines for the built environment.(69,70) The WELL Building Standard adopted equivalent melanopic lux (EML) criteria to account for the response t…”
BackgroundHiguchi, S., Lin, Y., Qiu, J., Zhang, Y., Ohashi, M., Lee, S., Kitamura, S., & Yasukouchi, A. (2021) · Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY · doi:10.1186/s40101-021-00257-x · Cited by 25
“However, excessive exposure to light at night has negative effects on human sleep and circadian rhythm [8].”
BackgroundStarreveld, D. E. J., Daniels, L. A., Kieffer, J. M., Valdimarsdottir, H. B., de Geus, J., Lanfermeijer, M., Someren, E. J. W. V., Habers, G. E. A., Bosch, J. A., Janus, C. P. M., et al. (2021) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers13194948 · Cited by 25
“However, as the circadian system is most strongly affected by white light enriched around 470 nm, the DWL condition in our study might still have been somewhat effective [22].”
BackgroundA systematic comparison of optogenetic approaches to visual restoration
Gilhooley, M. J., Lindner, M., Palumaa, T., Hughes, S., Peirson, S. N., & Hankins, M. W. (2022) · Molecular Therapy — Methods & Clinical Development · doi:10.1016/j.omtm.2022.03.003 · Cited by 25
“Stimuli were calibrated using an in-line power meter (Thor Labs, Ely, UK), and values were converted using a validated irradiance conversion toolbox.(87)”
Self-citationDelorme, T. C., Srikanta, S. B., Fisk, A. S., Cloutier, M., Sato, M., Pothecary, C. A., Merz, C., Foster, F., Brown, S. A., Peirson, S. N., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.855154 · Cited by 25
Self-citationKamrowski, R. L., Sutton, S. G., Tobin, R., & Hamann, M. (2014) · Environmental Management · doi:10.1007/s00267-014-0308-9 · Cited by 25
“Since light use is increasing around the world, and light pollution is known to have detrimental effects on multiple species (Rich and Longcore 2006) including humans (Lucas et al. 2014; Stevens 2009), an examination of personals norms is extremely relevant to our assessment of community intentions to reduce light use…”
BackgroundTimothy, J. W. S., Klas, N., Sanghani, H., Al-Mansouri, T., Hughes, A. T. L., Kirshenbaum, G. S., Brienza, V., Belle, M. D. C., Ralph, M. R., Clapcote, S. J., et al. (2017) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.04.018 · Cited by 25
“NKA α3 is localised to central and peripheral neurons, including retinal ganglion cells (46, 67), and glutamate is the main neurotransmitter of image and non-image forming pathways from the eye (12, 49).”
BackgroundIMI: The Role of Light in Refractive Development and Myopia: Evidence from Animal and Human Studies
Ashby, R., Harb, E. N., Ostrin, L. A., Flitcroft, I., Schaeffel, F., Karouta, C., Gawne, T. J., Chakraborty, R., Thomson, K., Read, S. A., et al. (2025) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.66.15.5 · Cited by 27
Dauchy, R. T., Wren, M. A., Dupepe, L. M., Hill, S. M., Xiang, S., Anbalagan, M., Belancio, V. P., Dauchy, E. M., & Blask, D. E. (2018) · Comparative Medicine · doi:10.30802/aalas-cm-17-000107 · Cited by 25
Metabolic Effects of Light at Night are Time‐ and Wavelength‐Dependent in Rats
Masís‐vargas, A., Ritsema, W. I. G. R., Mendoza, J., & Kalsbeek, A. (2020) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.22874 · Cited by 24
“(16) we selected intensities such that roughly the same photon flux was obtained for each wavelength.”
BackgroundInfluentialDiakite, A., & Knoop, M. (2021) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/1477153520982265 · Cited by 24
Spectral, visual, thermal, energy and circadian assessment of PDLC glazing in warm and humid climate
Mathew, V., Kurian, C. P., & Augustine, N. (2022) · Solar Energy · doi:10.1016/j.solener.2022.06.044 · Cited by 24
Hu, Z., Zhang, P., Huang, Y., Li, M., & Dai, Q. (2022) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109524 · Cited by 24
Are We Ready to Implement Circadian Hygiene Interventions and Programs?
Moreno, C. R. D. C., Raad, R., Gusmão, W. D. P., Luz, C. S. D. S., Silva, V. M., Prestes, R. M., Saraiva, S. P., Lemos, L. C., Vasconcelos, S. P., Nehme, P., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192416772 · Cited by 28
“For example, EML, devised by the Lucas group [22], and melanopic EDI, recommended by the International Commission on Illumination—CIE [23], are based on the spectrum of action of melanopsin.”
MethodMcDowell, R. J., Didikoğlu, A., Woelders, T., Gatt, M. J., Moffatt, F., Notash, S., Hut, R. A., Brown, T. M., & Lucas, R. J. (2024) · BMC Biology · doi:10.1186/s12915-024-02038-1 · Cited by 22
“…an optic filter with an appropriate spectral Table 2 Formulas used to calculate species and photopigment-specific light exposure metrics (after [20, 21]) Species-specific α-opic irradiance E e , α , s = E e , (cid:31) ( (cid:31) ) S α , s ( (cid:31) ) d 2 Species-specific α-opic efficacy of…”
InfluentialSelf-citationYang, P.-L., Tsujimura, S., Matsumoto, A., Yamashita, W., & Yeh, S. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-29613-1 · Cited by 26
A practical metric for melanopic metrology
Berman, S. M., & Clear, R. D. (2019) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/1477153518824147 · Cited by 22
Sunde, E., Mrdalj, J., Pedersen, T., Thun, E., Bjorvatn, B., Grønli, J., Harris, A., Waage, S., & Pallesen, S. (2020) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oemed-2019-106049 · Cited by 24
Evaluation of Two Strategies for Alleviating the Impact on the Circadian Cycle of Smartphone Screens
Terán, E., Yee-Rendón, C. M., Ortega-Salazar, J., Gracia, P. D., Romo-García, E., & Woods, R. L. (2020) · Optometry and Vision Science · doi:10.1097/opx.0000000000001485 · Cited by 24
Bright light therapy has a positive effect on sleep quality in patients with cancer: A meta-analysis
Lai, F., Luo, Z., Zhang, J., Xia, W., & Tian, L. (2024) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2024.101925 · Cited by 23
The implementation of natural lighting for human health from a planning perspective
Mardaljevic, J. (2021) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/14771535211022145 · Cited by 23
Metadata
- Authors
- Lucas, R. J., Peirson, S. N., Berson, D. M., Brown, T. M., Cooper, H. M., Czeisler, C. A., Figueiro, M. G., Gamlin, P. D., Lockley, S. W., O’Hagan, J. B., Price, L. L. A., Provencio, I., Skene, D. J., & Brainard, G. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Manchester (GB)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Brown University (US)
- Inserm (FR)
- Brigham and Women's Hospital (US)
- Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (US)
- University of Alabama at Birmingham (US)
- Public Health England (GB)
- University of Virginia (US)
- University of Surrey (GB)
- Thomas Jefferson University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lucas, Robert J.
- Brainard, George C.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Trends in Neurosciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-01
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-9
- ISSN
- 0166-2236 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4699304
- OpenAlex
- W2106496774
- Cited by
- 1,278
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 118 · 2025: 119 · 2024: 110 · 2023: 108 · 2022: 108 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 115 · 2019: 136 · 2018: 107 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 68 · 2015: 58 · 2014: 20
- FWCI
- 5.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Trends in Neurosciences (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- The Medicine Forum (submittedVersion)
- Surrey Research Insight Open Access (The University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/I021086/1, BB/I007296/1, BB/K002252/1, BB/I017836/1)
- National Eye Institute (R01EY012793, R01EY017137)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Impact of Light on Environment and Health
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Light effects on plants
- Keywords
- melanopsin, intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, non-visual photoreception, circadian regulation, phototherapy, light measurement, artificial lighting design, circadian rhythm disruption, mood disorders, sleep disorders
- MeSH terms
- Melanopsin, Animals, Circadian Rhythm, Humans, Photoreceptor Cells, Phototherapy, Retinal Ganglion Cells, Rod Opsins
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