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Measuring and using light in the melanopsin age
Open accessAbstract
Light is a potent stimulus for regulating circadian, hormonal, and behavioral systems. In addition, light therapy is effective for certain affective disorders, sleep problems, and circadian rhythm disruption. These biological and behavioral effects of light are influenced by a distinct photoreceptor in the eye, melanopsin-containing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), in addition to conventional rods and cones. We summarize the neurophysiology of this newly described sensory pathway and consider implications for the measurement, production, and application of light. A new light-measurement strategy taking account of the complex photoreceptive inputs to these non-visual responses is proposed for use by researchers, and simple suggestions for artificial/architectural lighting are provided for regulatory authorities, lighting manufacturers, designers, and engineers.
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“For this reason, it has recently been proposed that lux is an inappropriate measure for estimation of the impact of light on melatonin suppression, circadian-phase shifting, and other non -imageforming effects of retinal light exposure (35).”
From Evening use of light-emitting eReaders negatively affects sleep, circadian timing, and next-morning alertness. (2015) · cites this paper as [35]
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“They also exhibit beneficial actions on cardiovascular health by enhancing endothelial function, maintaining metabolic homeostasis,38 and reducing inflammation.39,40”
From Total and Cause-Specific Mortality of U.S. Nurses Working Rotating Night Shifts (2015) · cites this paper as [40]
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A new tool and workflow for the simulation of the non-image forming effects of light
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A multi-objective optimization method for enclosed-space lighting design based on MOPSO
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Identifying specific RGC types may shed light on their idiosyncratic responses to neuroprotection
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BackgroundHippocampal Contributions to Declarative Memory Consolidation During Sleep
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Are short (blue) wavelengths necessary for light treatment of seasonal affective disorder?
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“Note: melanopsin sensitivity adapted from Irradiance Toolbox (Lucas et al., 2014).”
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BackgroundMethodThe Role of Chromatic Aberration in Vision
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Simulating Physiological Potentials of Daylight Variables in Lighting Design
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“This has also been acknowledged by a group of researchers within this specific domain of light-related effects on humans.(24) Van Hoof et al(9) pointed to the flaws in the methodological approaches in light therapy studies from the point of view of building services engineers and building physicists.”
BackgroundMethods for Assessing Quantity and Quality of Illumination
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“According to new research into melanopsin retinal ganglion cells (Lucas et al. 2014), it is now well known that it is not just intensity of light, but rather distribution of wavelengths, especially shortwave blue light, that affect the suprachiasmatic nucleus.”
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FL-41 Tint Reduces Activation of Neural Pathways of Photophobia in Patients with Chronic Ocular Pain
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Self-citationEvaluation of sky spectra and sky models in daylighting simulations
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“Additionally, the photometric parameters at the eye level under typical lighting conditions computed with the α - opic toolbox 33 are shown in Table 1.”
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“Melanopsin plays a key role in phototransduction functions such as circadian photoentrainment.(11,12) Overall, the SCN receives light input, a potent timekeeper, to set the timing of rhythms by regulating neuronal activity, body temperature, and hormonal signals.”
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“From the recorded illuminance levels measured in photometric lux via the “LUXBlick” glasses worn by the participants, the amount of melanopic lux reaching the eye was calculated for each participant (Lucas et al., 2014) to quantify the influence of the non-image forming photoreceptor system on performance.”
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“In mammals, the master circadian clock, located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) within the hypothalamus, is entrained by signals transduced from retinal photoreceptors (Reppert and Weaver, 2002; Lucas et al., 2014).”
BackgroundLinking the non-visual effects of light exposure with occupational health
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“Downstream effects may depend on stimulation of just melanopsin or of any combination of the five photopigments, so light weighted for all five photopigment sensitivities should be measured (see Figure 1) and reported, to unravel the contribution of each photoreceptor type in determining nonvisual responses in the bra…”
BackgroundSelf-citationEffect of Single and Combined Monochromatic Light on the Human Pupillary Light Response
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“parameter calculated by the Irradiance toolbox (47) (B).”
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“provided a tool box to compute the ‘‘a-opic’’ illuminance for each of the five photopigments in the human eyes (Lucas et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRegente, J., de Zeeuw, J., Bes, F., Nowozin, C., Appelhoff, S., Wahnschaffe, A., Münch, M. Y., & Kunz, D. (2017) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2016.12.014 · Cited by 19
Łaszewska, K., Goroncy, A., Weber, P., Pracki, T., Tafil‐Klawe, M., Pracka, D., & Złomańczuk, P. (2017) · Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1027/0269-8803/a000199 · Cited by 35
“…been proposed that lux might be a less appropriate unit for estimating the influence of light on nonimage forming effects of retinal light exposure, we equated the stimuli according to the orthodox photopic luminous efficiency function (lux; Lucas et al., 2014; Vandewalle, Maquet, & Dijk, 2009).”
MethodPerceived well-being and light-reactive hormones: An exploratory study
Tonello, G., de Borsetti, N. H., Borsetti, H., Tereschuk, L., & Zigaran, S. L. (2018) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/1477153517750714 · Cited by 18
Ahmadi, H. Z., Lund‐Andersen, H., Kolko, M., Bach‐Holm, D., Alberti, M., & Ba‐Ali, S. (2019) · Acta Ophthalmologica · doi:10.1111/aos.14133 · Cited by 17
“Both human and non-human studies show that ipRGCs express a photopigment called melanopsin, which is sensitive to blue light (kmax = 480 nm), and show a slower kinetic response compared to rods and cones (Dacey et al. 2005; Gamlin et al. 2007; Kardon et al. 2009; Lucas et al. 2014).”
BackgroundPasquale, R., Umino, Y., & Solessio, E. C. (2019) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0455-19.2019 · Cited by 18
“ac max , (3) where D D max *RS (4) and RS( ) is the relative sensitivity for each pigment calculated from the respective opsin nomograms (Govardovskii et al., 2000) and media losses (Jacobs and Williams, 2007) using the rodent -optics toolbox (Lucas et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMethodDaily and Seasonal Variation in Light Exposure among the Old Order Amish
Lee, E., Amritwar, A., Hong, L. E., Mohyuddin, I., Brown, T. M., & Postolache, T. T. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17124460 · Cited by 17
“Based on direct Actiwatch Spectrum sensor readings collected from OOA light sources (not shown) and typical spectral power distributions from such sources [11], these corresponded, respectively, to naphtha/propane lamps vs.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationGraves, E., Davis, R. G., DuBose, J. R., Campiglia, G. C., Wilkerson, A. M., & Zimring, C. (2020) · HERD Health Environments Research & Design Journal · doi:10.1177/1937586720972078 · Cited by 18
Stefani, O., Marek, R., Schwarz, J., Plate, S., Zauner, J., & Schrader, B. (2024) · Clocks & Sleep · doi:10.3390/clockssleep6040042 · Cited by 19
“Following the example of Pedersen et al., models that differed by two units or less from the lower AIC had substantial support with the more parsimonious model to be preferred.”
Melanopic Limits of Metamer Spectral Optimisation in Multi-Channel Smart Lighting Systems
Zandi, B., Eissfeldt, A., Herzog, A., & Khanh, T. Q. (2021) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en14030527 · Cited by 18
“For this purpose, we optimised metamer spectra Xi(λ) and calculated the corresponding melanopsin excitation LMel, i = ∫ 780 380 Xi(λ)×smel(λ) dλ , with smel(λ) as the melanopic action spectrum [54,55].”
BackgroundMethodAmirazar, A., Azarbayjani, M., Molavi, M., & Karami, M. (2021) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111386 · Cited by 20
Luo, X., Ru, T., Chen, Q., Hsiao, F., Hung, C., Yang, C., & Zhou, G. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.771605 · Cited by 18
“The effective irradiances of each retinal photoreceptor provided by the two light conditions are shown in Table 1 (Lucas et al., 2014; Spitschan et al., 2019).”
BackgroundHou, D., Lin, C., & Lin, Y. (2022) · Phenomics · doi:10.1007/s43657-021-00039-6 · Cited by 17
Noor, M. C., Revell, V. L., Saradj, F. M., & Yazdanfar, S.-A. (2023) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2023.148470 · Cited by 18
Integrative Lighting in Classrooms: Preliminary Results from Simulations and Field Measurements
Verso, V. R. M. L., Giovannini, L., Valetti, L., & Pellegrino, A. (2023) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings13092128 · Cited by 17
Li, Y., Fang, W., Qiu, H., Yu, H., Dong, W., & Sun, Z. (2024) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2024.104304 · Cited by 18
Illuminating the future of wearable light metrology: Overview of the MeLiDos Project
Spitschan, M., Zauner, J., Tengelin, M. N., Bouroussis, C. A., Caspar, P., & Eloi, F. (2024) · Measurement · doi:10.1016/j.measurement.2024.114909 · Cited by 17
A systematic review and meta-analysis on light therapy for sleep disorders in shift workers
Zhao, C., Li, N., Miao, W., He, Y., & Lin, Y. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-83789-3 · Cited by 21
“Previous research indicates that light exposure with a higher proportion of blue components, as indicated by higher Melanopic Effective Daytime Illuminance (EDI) or Circadian Stimulus (CS) values, plays a more significant role in regulating the human circadian rhythm 29,33,34 .”
ŽUKAUSKAS, A., Vaicekauskas, R., Tuzikas, A., Petrulis, A., Stanikūnas, R., Švėgžda, A., Eidikas, P., & Vitta, P. (2014) · IEEE photonics journal · doi:10.1109/jphot.2014.2319102 · Cited by 18
Galadí-Enríquez, D. (2017) · Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer · doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2017.12.011 · Cited by 17
“…the qualitative and unsatisfactory, one-number CCT descriptor, to the heavy power of giving the whole spectrum in high resolution as suggested by Lucas et al. (2014), there has to be some middle point that allows us to work with just a few numbers, with univocal and clear physical meanings,…”
BackgroundInfluence of the Spectral Quality of Light on Daytime Alertness Levels in Humans
Łaszewska, K., Goroncy, A., Weber, P., Pracki, T., & Tafil‐Klawe, M. (2018) · Advances in Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.5709/acp-0250-0 · Cited by 35
“…been proposed that lux might be a less appropriate unit for estimating the influence of light on the nonimage forming effects of retinal light exposure, we equated the stimuli according to the orthodox photopic luminous efficiency function (lux; Lucas et al., 2014; Vandewalle, Maquet & Dijk, 2009).”
MethodZhang, S., Zhang, Y., Zhang, W., Chen, S., & Liu, C. (2019) · Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.04.013 · Cited by 17
Moore‐Ede, M. C., Heitmann, A., & Guttkuhn, R. (2020) · Journal of Biological Rhythms · doi:10.1177/0748730420923164 · Cited by 19
“Since the M-cone mediated extrinsic green and the S-cone mediated extrinsic violet, and inputs to the ipRGCs would be largely dissipated by the time an individual reaches their workplace (>2 h after first morning exposure to light), we propose that our steady-state predominantly blue Circadian Potency spectral sensiti…”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Lucas, R. J., Peirson, S. N., Berson, D. M., Brown, T. M., Cooper, H. M., Czeisler, C. A., Figueiro, M. G., Gamlin, P. D., Lockley, S. W., O’Hagan, J. B., Price, L. L. A., Provencio, I., Skene, D. J., & Brainard, G. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Manchester (GB)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Brown University (US)
- Inserm (FR)
- Brigham and Women's Hospital (US)
- Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (US)
- University of Alabama at Birmingham (US)
- Public Health England (GB)
- University of Virginia (US)
- University of Surrey (GB)
- Thomas Jefferson University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lucas, Robert J.
- Brainard, George C.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Trends in Neurosciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-01
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-9
- ISSN
- 0166-2236 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4699304
- OpenAlex
- W2106496774
- Cited by
- 1,278
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 118 · 2025: 119 · 2024: 110 · 2023: 108 · 2022: 108 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 115 · 2019: 136 · 2018: 107 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 68 · 2015: 58 · 2014: 20
- FWCI
- 5.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Trends in Neurosciences (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- The Medicine Forum (submittedVersion)
- Surrey Research Insight Open Access (The University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/I021086/1, BB/I007296/1, BB/K002252/1, BB/I017836/1)
- National Eye Institute (R01EY012793, R01EY017137)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Impact of Light on Environment and Health
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Light effects on plants
- Keywords
- melanopsin, intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, non-visual photoreception, circadian regulation, phototherapy, light measurement, artificial lighting design, circadian rhythm disruption, mood disorders, sleep disorders
- MeSH terms
- Melanopsin, Animals, Circadian Rhythm, Humans, Photoreceptor Cells, Phototherapy, Retinal Ganglion Cells, Rod Opsins
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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