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Measuring and using light in the melanopsin age
Open accessAbstract
Light is a potent stimulus for regulating circadian, hormonal, and behavioral systems. In addition, light therapy is effective for certain affective disorders, sleep problems, and circadian rhythm disruption. These biological and behavioral effects of light are influenced by a distinct photoreceptor in the eye, melanopsin-containing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), in addition to conventional rods and cones. We summarize the neurophysiology of this newly described sensory pathway and consider implications for the measurement, production, and application of light. A new light-measurement strategy taking account of the complex photoreceptive inputs to these non-visual responses is proposed for use by researchers, and simple suggestions for artificial/architectural lighting are provided for regulatory authorities, lighting manufacturers, designers, and engineers.
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“For this reason, it has recently been proposed that lux is an inappropriate measure for estimation of the impact of light on melatonin suppression, circadian-phase shifting, and other non -imageforming effects of retinal light exposure (35).”
From Evening use of light-emitting eReaders negatively affects sleep, circadian timing, and next-morning alertness. (2015) · cites this paper as [35]
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“They also exhibit beneficial actions on cardiovascular health by enhancing endothelial function, maintaining metabolic homeostasis,38 and reducing inflammation.39,40”
From Total and Cause-Specific Mortality of U.S. Nurses Working Rotating Night Shifts (2015) · cites this paper as [40]
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Self-citationEffects of blue light on the circadian system and eye physiology
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Self-citationHigh-Resolution Imagery of Earth at Night: New Sources, Opportunities and Challenges
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Melatonin suppression is exquisitely sensitive to light and primarily driven by melanopsin in humans
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Self-citationCurrent understanding of photophobia, visual networks and headaches
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“Comprehensive reviews on the structural and functional properties of these photoreceptors highlight their role as an illumination detector system, optimally-driven by 480 nm wavelength photons producing blue in the visible spectrum (49,61).”
BackgroundChinoy, E. D., Duffy, J. F., & Czeisler, C. A. (2018) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.13692 · Cited by 116
“Melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells are especially sensitive to these short-wavelength light stimuli, and when activated in the evening cause the suppression of pineal melatonin secretion and phase delays in circadian timing (Zeitzer et al. 2000; Brainard et al. 2001; Thapan et al. 2001; Lockley et al. 2006;…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationHuebner, G. M., Shipworth, D., Gauthier, S., Witzel, C., Raynham, P., & Chan, W. (2016) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2016.02.008 · Cited by 124
Opperhuizen, A., Stenvers, D. J., Jansen, R., Foppen, E., Fliers, E., & Kalsbeek, A. (2017) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-017-4262-y · Cited by 114
“All data based on the rodent-toolbox provided by Lucas et al [18]”
BackgroundMethodMünch, M. Y., Nowozin, C., Regente, J., Bes, F., de Zeeuw, J., Hädel, S., Wahnschaffe, A., & Kunz, D. (2016) · Neuropsychobiology · doi:10.1159/000477093 · Cited by 118
Long-Term Effect of Optic Nerve Axotomy on the Retinal Ganglion Cell Layer
Nadal-Nicolás, F. M., Sobrado‐Calvo, P., Jiménez-López, M., Vidal‐Sanz, M., & Agudo‐Barriuso, M. (2015) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.15-17195 · Cited by 112
Huiberts, L., Smolders, K. C. H. J., & de Kort, Y. A. W. (2016) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.05.035 · Cited by 112
Adamsson, M., Laike, T., & Morita, T. (2017) · Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY · doi:10.1186/s40101-016-0103-9 · Cited by 111
Short‐wavelength enrichment of polychromatic light enhances human melatonin suppression potency
Brainard, G. C., Hanifin, J. P., Warfield, B., Stone, M. K., James, M. E., Ayers, M. A., Kubey, A. A., Byrne, B. G., & Rollag, M. D. (2015) · Journal of Pineal Research · doi:10.1111/jpi.12221 · Cited by 110
“To calculate human rod, cone, and melanopsin photoreceptor illuminances, the lamp SPDs were entered into a toolbox worksheet that is a software model for human photoreception freely available online [36].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationPatient room lighting influences on sleep, appraisal and mood in hospitalized people
Giménez, M. C., Geerdinck, L. L., Versteylen, M. O., Leffers, P., Meekes, G. J. B. M., Herremans, H., de Ruyter, B., Bikker, J. W., Kuijpers, P. M. J. C., & Schlangen, L. J. M. (2016) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.12470 · Cited by 107
Building Evidence for Health: Green Buildings, Current Science, and Future Challenges
Cedeño-Laurent, J. G., Williams, A. A., MacNaughton, P., Cao, X., Eitland, E. S., Spengler, J. D., & Allen, J. G. (2018) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031816-044420 · Cited by 114
Perspectives in affective disorders: Clocks and sleep
Wirz‐Justice, A., & Benedetti, F. (2019) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.14362 · Cited by 111
“However, the norms of indoor lighting are being broadened beyond the visual system (Lucas et al., 2014), somewhat simplified in the formula “human centric lighting.””
BackgroundDaily Light Exposure Patterns Reveal Phase and Period of the Human Circadian Clock
Woelders, T., Beersma, D. G. M., Gordijn, M. C. M., Hut, R. A., & Wams, E. J. (2017) · Journal of Biological Rhythms · doi:10.1177/0748730417696787 · Cited by 107
“Where Kronauer’s model should ideally be modified to take melanopic lux (Lucas et al., 2014) as an input, the impact of light on the clock can likely be more accurately described when actigraph devices return melanopic lux or photon flux corrected for the spectral sensitivity of melanopsin.”
BackgroundMelanopsin Contributions to the Representation of Images in the Early Visual System
Allen, A. E., Storchi, R., Martial, F. P., Bedford, R. A., & Lucas, R. J. (2017) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.04.046 · Cited by 105
Self-citationCone and melanopsin contributions to human brightness estimation
Zele, A. J., Adhikari, P., Feigl, B., & Cao, D. (2018) · Journal of the Optical Society of America A · doi:10.1364/josaa.35.000b19 · Cited by 97
The influence of light on thermal responses
te Kulve, M., Schellen, L., Schlangen, L. J. M., & van Marken Lichtenbelt, W. D. (2016) · Acta Physiologica · doi:10.1111/apha.12552 · Cited by 105
“Via this photoentrainment, light indirectly influences behaviour, sleep, cognition, seasonal affective disorders, melatonin production, cortisol production and core body temperature (CBT) (Lucas et al. 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialChellappa, S. L., Steiner, R., Oelhafen, P., & Cajochen, C. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-13973-1 · Cited by 105
Grønli, J., Byrkjedal, I. K., Bjorvatn, B., Nødtvedt, Ø., Hamre, B., & Pallesen, S. (2016) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2016.02.006 · Cited by 103
“This is also true at luminance level when measured in photopic lux [31].”
BackgroundImplementing non-image-forming effects of light in the built environment: A review on what we need
Khademagha, P. P., Aries, M. M., Rosemann, A. L. P., & van Loenen, E. J. (2016) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.08.035 · Cited by 104
“[2] can prevent this problem by measuring and calculating corneal effective irradiance with respect to rods, cones, and the ipRGC photoreceptors separately.”
BackgroundCao, D., Nicandro, N., & Barrionuevo, P. A. (2015) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/15.1.27 · Cited by 104
Metabolic Implications of Exposure to Light at Night: Lessons from Animal and Human Studies
Fleury, G., Masís‐vargas, A., & Kalsbeek, A. (2020) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.22807 · Cited by 100
“Additionally, research aiming to study the different effects of light should report the spectral sensitivity within each retinal photopigment complement (98), as it facilitates comparisons among studies and because the importance of non-ipRGCs photoreceptors in circadian entrainment has recently been re-established by…”
BackgroundEffect of Light and Melatonin and Other Melatonin Receptor Agonists on Human Circadian Physiology
Emens, J. S., & Burgess, H. J. (2015) · Sleep Medicine Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.jsmc.2015.08.001 · Cited by 102
“Most typically, light intensity is reported in units of lux, although this unit does not adequately reflect the wavelength sensitivities of the primary circadian photoreceptor, the ipRGCs.(62) Nonetheless, as a guide, very bright light, such as that experienced outside during a sunny cloudless day, can be as high as 1…”
Gringras, P., Middleton, B., Skene, D. J., & Revell, V. L. (2015) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2015.00233 · Cited by 100
“(16), the way we have done in the present manuscript.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAdvantages of III‐nitride laser diodes in solid‐state lighting
Wierer, J. J., & Tsao, J. Y. (2015) · physica status solidi (a) · doi:10.1002/pssa.201431700 · Cited by 99
Shared and Differential Retinal Responses against Optic Nerve Injury and Ocular Hypertension
Vidal‐Sanz, M., Galindo‐Romero, C., Valiente‐Soriano, F. J., Nadal-Nicolás, F. M., Ortín-Martínez, A., Rovere, G., Salinas‐Navarro, M., Lucas‐Ruiz, F., Sánchez-Migallón, M. C., Sobrado‐Calvo, P., et al. (2017) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2017.00235 · Cited by 97
How to measure light pollution—A systematic review of methods and applications
Mander, S., Alam, F., Lovreglio, R., & Ooi, M. P. (2023) · Sustainable Cities and Society · doi:10.1016/j.scs.2023.104465 · Cited by 100
Souman, J. L., Borra, T., de Goijer, I., Schlangen, L. J. M., Vlaskamp, B. N. S., & Lucassen, M. P. (2018) · Journal of Biological Rhythms · doi:10.1177/0748730418784041 · Cited by 96
A Population Representation of Absolute Light Intensity in the Mammalian Retina
Milner, E. S., & Do, M. T. H. (2017) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2017.09.005 · Cited by 94
“Tracking irradiance therefore provides a survival advantage, and mammals do so in order to control functions that are as diverse as sleep regulation, hormonal adjustment, neuromodulation, and pupillary constriction (Lucas et al., 2014).”
BackgroundAllen, A. E., Hazelhoff, E. M., Martial, F. P., Cajochen, C., & Lucas, R. J. (2018) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsy100 · Cited by 95
“The important question of which photoreceptor(s) play significant roles in defining response amplitude under real-world light exposure scenarios, however, remains largely unanswered [1].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationThe Method of Silent Substitution for Examining Melanopsin Contributions to Pupil Control
Spitschan, M., & Woelders, T. (2018) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2018.00941 · Cited by 96
“For melanopsin, there is currently no standard(ised) spectral sensitivity, though by using a template (also called nomogram) centered at 480 nm and assuming a low peak optical density, such a spectral sensitivity can easily be derived (33, 34).”
BackgroundLighting in the Home and Health: A Systematic Review
Osibona, O., Solomon, B. D., & Fecht, D. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18020609 · Cited by 110
“Melanopsin, a photoreceptor in the eye, responds to rich blue light and signals the suppression of melatonin [74].”
BackgroundEffects of new light sources on task switching and mental rotation performance
Ferlazzo, F., Piccardi, L., Burattini, C., Barbalace, M., Giannini, A. M., & Bisegna, F. (2014) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2014.03.005 · Cited by 91
“Ferlazzo), laura.piccardi@ iroma1.it (C. Burattini), amaria.giannini@uniroma1.it ). max maximally sensitive to wavelengths around 535 nm, L cones have the erythrolabe, sensitive to long wavelengths (lmax z 565 nm), and rod opsin has a maximum sensitivity around to 500 nm (e.g., Lucas et al., 2014).”
BackgroundChoi, K., Shin, C., Kim, T., Chung, H. J., & Suk, H. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-36791-5 · Cited by 95
Metadata
- Authors
- Lucas, R. J., Peirson, S. N., Berson, D. M., Brown, T. M., Cooper, H. M., Czeisler, C. A., Figueiro, M. G., Gamlin, P. D., Lockley, S. W., O’Hagan, J. B., Price, L. L. A., Provencio, I., Skene, D. J., & Brainard, G. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Manchester (GB)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Brown University (US)
- Inserm (FR)
- Brigham and Women's Hospital (US)
- Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (US)
- University of Alabama at Birmingham (US)
- Public Health England (GB)
- University of Virginia (US)
- University of Surrey (GB)
- Thomas Jefferson University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lucas, Robert J.
- Brainard, George C.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Trends in Neurosciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-01
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-9
- ISSN
- 0166-2236 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4699304
- OpenAlex
- W2106496774
- Cited by
- 1,278
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 118 · 2025: 119 · 2024: 110 · 2023: 108 · 2022: 108 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 115 · 2019: 136 · 2018: 107 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 68 · 2015: 58 · 2014: 20
- FWCI
- 5.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Trends in Neurosciences (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- The Medicine Forum (submittedVersion)
- Surrey Research Insight Open Access (The University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/I021086/1, BB/I007296/1, BB/K002252/1, BB/I017836/1)
- National Eye Institute (R01EY012793, R01EY017137)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Impact of Light on Environment and Health
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Light effects on plants
- Keywords
- melanopsin, intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, non-visual photoreception, circadian regulation, phototherapy, light measurement, artificial lighting design, circadian rhythm disruption, mood disorders, sleep disorders
- MeSH terms
- Melanopsin, Animals, Circadian Rhythm, Humans, Photoreceptor Cells, Phototherapy, Retinal Ganglion Cells, Rod Opsins
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