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Measuring and using light in the melanopsin age
Open accessAbstract
Light is a potent stimulus for regulating circadian, hormonal, and behavioral systems. In addition, light therapy is effective for certain affective disorders, sleep problems, and circadian rhythm disruption. These biological and behavioral effects of light are influenced by a distinct photoreceptor in the eye, melanopsin-containing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), in addition to conventional rods and cones. We summarize the neurophysiology of this newly described sensory pathway and consider implications for the measurement, production, and application of light. A new light-measurement strategy taking account of the complex photoreceptive inputs to these non-visual responses is proposed for use by researchers, and simple suggestions for artificial/architectural lighting are provided for regulatory authorities, lighting manufacturers, designers, and engineers.
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“For this reason, it has recently been proposed that lux is an inappropriate measure for estimation of the impact of light on melatonin suppression, circadian-phase shifting, and other non -imageforming effects of retinal light exposure (35).”
From Evening use of light-emitting eReaders negatively affects sleep, circadian timing, and next-morning alertness. (2015) · cites this paper as [35]
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“They also exhibit beneficial actions on cardiovascular health by enhancing endothelial function, maintaining metabolic homeostasis,38 and reducing inflammation.39,40”
From Total and Cause-Specific Mortality of U.S. Nurses Working Rotating Night Shifts (2015) · cites this paper as [40]
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Cites
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“Light inputs in the model are based on photopic illuminance, whereas circadian responses are more strongly predicted by melanopic illuminance (Gooley et al., 2010; Lucas et al., 2014; Brown, 2020).”
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“We constructed the spectral sensitivity of melanopsin along the lines of a recently proposed standard for ‘melanopic’ sensitivity [109] by shifting the Govardovskii nomogram [110] to have its peak spectral sensitivity λmax at 480 nm, consistent with previous reports of the peak spectral sensitivity of melanopsin [111–…”
Unified framework to evaluate non-visual spectral effectiveness of light for human health
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“Apart from calculating the melanopic illuminance, equation (2), or the circadian effective irradiance, equation (5), another solution has been suggested that defines a new absolute measure.(17) Instead of normalizing the spectral efficiency functions so that the maximum height is equal to one, it was proposed to norma…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationPupillary responses to short-wavelength light are preserved in aging
Rukmini, A. V., Miléa, D., Aung, T., & Gooley, J. J. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep43832 · Cited by 58
Dynamics of Non-visual Responses in Humans: As Fast as Lightning?
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“Thus far, some functions along with their corresponding calculators have been developed such as ‘Melanopic lux’ Vz(λ) [57, 81], Equivalent Melanopic Lux”
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“Similar results are obtained when using blue-enriched light at a 460 nm wavelength (Vandewalle et al., 2007a,b), which is the preferred wavelength for the retinal ganglion cells that are responsible for nonimage-forming photoreception (Do and Yau, 2010; Lucas et al., 2014).”
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“2.5 1997), the CIE photobiological quantities ( α -opic irradiance and equivalent illuminance) defined in TN003:2015 (CIE-TN003:2015 2015; Lucas et al. 2014), or the Lighting Research Center ’ s CS and CLa (Rea et al. 2012) from spectral data.”
BackgroundInfluentialWhite Light During Daytime Does Not Improve Alertness in Well-rested Individuals
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“One model yielded the so-called melanopic curve (Lucas et al. 2014) and takes into account the action of ipRGC melanopsin.”
BackgroundMethods to Describe and Measure Lighting Conditions in Experiments on Non-Image-Forming Aspects
Knoop, M., Broszio, K., Diakite, A., Liedtke, C., Niedling, M., Rothert, I., Rudawski, F., & Weber, N. (2019) · LEUKOS The Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America · doi:10.1080/15502724.2018.1518716 · Cited by 51
“A recent review (Lucas et al. 2014) indicates that, in addition to ipRGCs, rods and cones can contribute to NIF effects, although it is still unclear how and to what extent.”
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Arendt, J., & Middleton, B. (2017) · General and Comparative Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2017.05.010 · Cited by 54
“In various laboratories the investigation of the human light action spectrum for non-image forming effects of light, the identification of light sensitive retinal ganglion cells, and the discovery of the novel photopigment melanopsin underlying circadian responses, followed on from this early work (Berson et al., 2002…”
Impacts of home lighting on human health
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Revision of the EU Green Public Procurement Criteria for Road Lighting and traffic signals
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The Light-Dosimeter: A new device to help advance research on the non-visual responses to light
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Influence of light exposure during early life on the age of onset of bipolar disorder
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“Light is considered the main human time keeper, and it is most likely the combination of light exposure both during the day and night that is important (Czeisler 2013; Lucas et al. 2014; Neil-Sztramko et al. 2014).”
BackgroundCircadian and Circannual Regulation in the Horse: Internal Timing in an Elite Athlete
Murphy, B. A. (2019) · Journal of Equine Veterinary Science · doi:10.1016/j.jevs.2019.02.026 · Cited by 54
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Self-citationIndividual differences and diversity in human physiological responses to light
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InfluentialThe potential influence of LED lighting on mental illness
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“While future LED systems may be able to monitor and customise individual exposure (Schubert and Kim 2005), common frameworks to accurately quantify and model lighting for NIF functions are still under development (Lucas et al. 2014; Amundad ottir et al. 2016).”
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“In this research, the melanopic curve is used to calculate the Equivalent Melanopic Lux (EML) values (Enezi et al. 2011; Lucas et al. 2014). ipRGCs contain the photopigment called melanopsin.”
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Encoding of environmental illumination by primate melanopsin neurons
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“The spectral content of light can also differ, with differing effects on the circadian timing system (Lucas et al., 2014), which is a factor not currently implemented in our circadian model.”
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“This emission spectrum is very different from incandescent and fluorescent lights, which have a dominant wavelength closer to the sensitivity of the classical visual system (550 nm) [2].”
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“Unfortunately, studies of circadian rhythms in polar animals often report illuminance in lux, a measure of light intensity as perceived by the human visual system and an inaccurate representation of lighting conditions that entrain circadian systems (74).”
BackgroundOutdoor light at night at residences and breast cancer risk in Canada
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“If sufficient information is provided, which must include the spectral power distribution (SPD), these measures can all be converted into each other (13, 14).”
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“Whilst LDRs provide a good marker for gross changes in the light environment, this is no replacement for a correctly measured and calibrated light source, especially when considering circadian and visual processes 24 .”
Self-citationBehavioural determinants of physiologically-relevant light exposure
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“…presence of melanopsin therefore imparts a unique source of sensory control, as for the RGC classes that support more conventional aspects of vision, ipRGCs also receive synaptic inputs from other retinal cell types that convey visual signals originating with the rods and cones (Lucas et al. 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationNarrow‐spectrum artificial light silences female fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)
Owens, A. C. S., & Lewis, S. M. (2021) · Insect Conservation and Diversity · doi:10.1111/icad.12487 · Cited by 43
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“The illuminance, colour temperature and alpha-opic illu-minance 33,34 of the lighting source are summarised in Table 1.”
Tam, S. K. E., Brown, L. A., Wilson, T. S., Tir, S., Fisk, A. S., Pothecary, C. A., van der Vinne, V., Foster, F., Vyazovskiy, V. V., Bannerman, D. M., et al. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2101591118 · Cited by 42
“By contrast, under DLE performance was better at ZT14 than at ZT2 [simple effect of Time of Day F(1, 10) = 4.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationKonis, K., Mack, W. J., & Schneider, E. L. (2018) · Clinical Interventions in Aging · doi:10.2147/cia.s165224 · Cited by 41
“Use of a calibrated spectrometer for measurement of light exposures follows the consensus research recommendation to record light exposures in the most complete form, that is corneal SPDs.19 In each intervention space, SPD measurements were taken during the intervention at distances of 1, 3, and 5 m from windows and i…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTekieh, T., Lockley, S. W., Robinson, P. A., McCloskey, S., Zobaer, M. S., & Postnova, S. (2020) · Journal of Pineal Research · doi:10.1111/jpi.12681 · Cited by 43
“This difference comes from (a) the duration of light exposure (6.5 vs 1.5 hours) and (b) the method for calculation of melatonin suppression (Equation 10 vs Equation 11).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationCircadian disruption, melatonin rhythm perturbations and their contributions to chaotic physiology
Reiter, R. J., Rosales‐Corral, S., & Sharma, R. (2020) · Advances in Medical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.advms.2020.07.001 · Cited by 41
Circadian Clock and Complement Immune System—Complementary Control of Physiology and Pathology?
Shivshankar, P., Fekry, B., Eckel‐Mahan, K. L., & Wetsel, R. A. (2020) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2020.00418 · Cited by 40
“information transmitted through the retinal ganglion cells (Ruby et al., 2002; Lucas et al., 2014).”
BackgroundEnvironmental demands and resources: a framework for understanding the physical environment for work
Roskams, M., & Haynes, B. (2021) · Facilities · doi:10.1108/f-07-2020-0090 · Cited by 50
Papatsimpa, C., Schlangen, L. J. M., Smolders, K. C. H. J., Linnartz, J. M. G., & de Kort, Y. A. W. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-92863-z · Cited by 42
Correlated color temperature is not a suitable proxy for the biological potency of light
Esposito, T., & Houser, K. W. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-21755-7 · Cited by 42
Dauchy, R. T., Wren, M. A., Hoffman, A. E., Hanifin, J. P., Warfield, B., Brainard, G. C., Hill, S. M., Belancio, V. P., Dauchy, E. M., & Blask, D. E. (2016) · PubMed Central · Cited by 38
Self-citationAries, M., Beute, F., & Fischl, G. (2020) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101409 · Cited by 38
Streetlights Disrupt Night-Time Sleep in Urban Black Swans
Aulsebrook, A. E., Lesku, J. A., Mulder, R. A., Goymann, W., Vyssotski, A. L., & Jones, T. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2020.00131 · Cited by 41
Influence of geometrical and optical building parameters on the circadian daylighting of an office
Potočnik, J., & Košir, M. (2021) · Journal of Building Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102402 · Cited by 40
West, A. S., Simonsen, S. A., Jennum, P., Hansen, N. C., Schønsted, M., Zielinski, A. H., Sander, B., & Iversen, H. K. (2019) · Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.3233/nre-192752 · Cited by 38
Melanopsin-Derived Visual Responses under Light Adapted Conditions in the Mouse dLGN
Davis, K. E., Eleftheriou, C. G., Allen, A. E., Procyk, C. A., & Lucas, R. J. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0123424 · Cited by 38
“These were converted to effective photon flux for rod opsin and melanopsin by multiplying by the normalised in vivo spectral sensitivity for each photopigment, correcting for the pre-receptoral filtering (in the case of in vivo recordings) and integrating across the spectrum ([18] spectral sensitivity functions availa…”
MethodSelf-citationCold LED lighting affects visual but not acoustic vigilance
Burattini, C., Piccardi, L., Curcio, G., Ferlazzo, F., Giannini, A. M., & Bisegna, F. (2019) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.01.022 · Cited by 40
Photo-damage, photo-protection and age-related macular degeneration
Marquioni‐Ramella, M. D., & Suburo, Á. M. (2015) · Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences · doi:10.1039/c5pp00188a · Cited by 38
Indoor lighting quality: Effects of different wall colours
Bellia, L., Pedace, A., & Fragliasso, F. (2015) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/1477153515594654 · Cited by 38
de Toledo, L. H. S., Moraes, M. N., Poletini, M. O., Cipolla‐Neto, J., Baron, J., & Mota, T. (2023) · Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology · doi:10.1016/j.jpap.2023.100199 · Cited by 43
Artificial skylight effects in a windowless office environment
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The effect of evening light on circadian-related outcomes: A systematic review
Cyr, M., Artenie, D. Z., Bikaii, A. A., Borsook, D., & Olson, J. A. (2022) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2022.101660 · Cited by 34
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“‘non-image-forming’ (NIF) visual responses has been a long-standing goal of sensory biology [3].”
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“It is worth noting that the supplementary materials of Lucas et al. (2014) were used to calculate the photometric values [37].”
BackgroundMethodThe ip RGC ‐driven pupil response with light exposure and refractive error in children
Ostrin, L. A. (2018) · Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics · doi:10.1111/opo.12583 · Cited by 36
“1 ) was calculated for each stimulus from power measurements using an optical power meter (https://www.newport.com) and melanopic alpha-opic lux was calculated using the toolbox provided by Lucas et al. 50 The right pupil was recorded at 60 Hz using a frame mounted binocular ViewPoint EyeTracker with infrared illumina…”
Štofková, A., Kamimura, D., Ohki, T., Ota, M., Arima, Y., & Murakami, M. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-38895-y · Cited by 35
Generalizability of A Neural Network Model for Circadian Phase Prediction in Real-World Conditions
Stone, J. E., Phillips, A. J. K., Ftouni, S., Magee, M., Howard, M. E., Lockley, S. W., Sletten, T. L., Anderson, C., Rajaratnam, S. M. W., & Postnova, S. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-47311-4 · Cited by 34
Self-citationMisiunaite, I., Eastman, C. I., & Crowley, S. J. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.00099 · Cited by 35
Incorporating Laboratory Animal Science into Responsible Biomedical Research
Barbee, R. W., & Turner, P. V. (2019) · ILAR Journal · doi:10.1093/ilar/ilz017 · Cited by 35
Zandi, B., Stefani, O., Herzog, A., Schlangen, L. J. M., Vinh, T. Q., & Khanh, T. Q. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-02136-y · Cited by 36
Melanopsin-mediated post-illumination pupil response in the peripheral retina
Joyce, D. S., Feigl, B., & Zele, A. J. (2016) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/16.8.5 · Cited by 34
“The a-opic photoreceptor excitations (Lucas et al., 2014) of the stimuli show that the melanopic excitation of the highest corneal irradiance (15.5 log photons.cm 2.s 1) short wavelength light was ;11,4603 greater than its long wavelength counterpart (Table 1).”
BackgroundInfluentialCerebral neural correlates of differential melanopic photic stimulation in humans
Hung, S., Miléa, D., Rukmini, A. V., Najjar, R. P., Tan, J. H., Viénot, F., Dubail, M., Tow, S., Aung, T., Gooley, J. J., et al. (2016) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.09.061 · Cited by 34
“…respond preferentially to short wavelength blue light, but also integrate neural signals originating from rods and cones, before projecting to various cerebral structures implicated in non-visual photic responses such as the pupillary light reflex and circadian entrainment (Lucas et al., 2014).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Lucas, R. J., Peirson, S. N., Berson, D. M., Brown, T. M., Cooper, H. M., Czeisler, C. A., Figueiro, M. G., Gamlin, P. D., Lockley, S. W., O’Hagan, J. B., Price, L. L. A., Provencio, I., Skene, D. J., & Brainard, G. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Manchester (GB)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Brown University (US)
- Inserm (FR)
- Brigham and Women's Hospital (US)
- Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (US)
- University of Alabama at Birmingham (US)
- Public Health England (GB)
- University of Virginia (US)
- University of Surrey (GB)
- Thomas Jefferson University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lucas, Robert J.
- Brainard, George C.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Trends in Neurosciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-01
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-9
- ISSN
- 0166-2236 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4699304
- OpenAlex
- W2106496774
- Cited by
- 1,278
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 118 · 2025: 119 · 2024: 110 · 2023: 108 · 2022: 108 · 2021: 119 · 2020: 115 · 2019: 136 · 2018: 107 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 68 · 2015: 58 · 2014: 20
- FWCI
- 5.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Trends in Neurosciences (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- The Medicine Forum (submittedVersion)
- Surrey Research Insight Open Access (The University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/I021086/1, BB/I007296/1, BB/K002252/1, BB/I017836/1)
- National Eye Institute (R01EY012793, R01EY017137)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Impact of Light on Environment and Health
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Light effects on plants
- Keywords
- melanopsin, intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, non-visual photoreception, circadian regulation, phototherapy, light measurement, artificial lighting design, circadian rhythm disruption, mood disorders, sleep disorders
- MeSH terms
- Melanopsin, Animals, Circadian Rhythm, Humans, Photoreceptor Cells, Phototherapy, Retinal Ganglion Cells, Rod Opsins
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