Couples and Miscarriage: The Influence of Gender and Reproductive Factors on the Impact of Miscarriage
Abstract
Objective We sought to understand the effect of gender, age, mental health history, and reproductive factors on the appraisal of miscarriage in couples.Design We conducted a secondary analysis of data from the Couples Miscarriage Healing Project.Sample We analyzed data from 341 couples who had miscarried within 3 months of the original study recruitment.Method Multifactorial analysis of variance was used to analyze baseline effects of gender, age, mental health history, infertility, number of miscarriages, living children, and gestational age on the impact of miscarriage as measured by the three subscales of the Revised Impact of Miscarriage Scale: Isolation/Guilt, Devastating Event, and Loss of Baby.Results Women scored significantly higher than men on all measures. Younger couples in whom either member had been previously treated for anxiety, depression, or grief were more likely to feel guilt and isolation over their miscarriage than those with no such history (13.30 vs. 11.64; p < .0001) and older couples with and without a mental health treatment history. Younger couples were also more likely to identify miscarriage as the "loss of a baby" and feel more devastated than older couples. Couples with infertility were more devastated (14.30 vs. 11.20; p < .01) and felt more isolation/guilt related to miscarriage (13.59 vs. 12.72; p < .05).Conclusions In general, couples experiencing miscarriage after 8 weeks gestation were more impacted than when the miscarriage occurred before 8 weeks. Recommendations for future practice and research are discussed.
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Quantitative studies comparing heterosexual couples' experiences following pregnancy loss and neonatal death suggest that men typically experience less intense and enduring levels of grief than women.
“For example, quantitative studies comparing heterosexual couples’ experiences following pregnancy loss and neonatal death suggest that men typically experience less intense and enduring levels of grief than women [18–23].”
From Factors contributing to men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal death: further development of an emerging model in an Australian sample (2021) · cites this paper as [23]
Current grief measures may not capture all of the complexities of grief for men.
“current grief measures may not capture all of the complexities of grief for men”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
There is currently limited evidence to suggest that grief following pregnancy loss is affected by gestational age.
“Despite this variability, there is currently limited evidence to suggest that grief following pregnancy loss is affected by gestational age [3, 21–25].”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
With the exception of one study which employed author-developed measures of grief and support service satisfaction, the remaining quantitative studies employed standardised and validated measures for both predictors and grief.
“With the exception of one study which employed author-developed measures of grief and support service satisfaction [70] the remaining quantitative studies employed standardised and validated measures for both predictors and grief [23–25, 67, 76, 84, 86–96].”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
Some included studies noted that the use of existing grief measures (including the PGS and RIMS) might not be valid for measuring men's grief experiences, particularly in relation to potential differences between internal versus external grieving styles.
“Importantly, however, some studies noted that the use of existing grief measures (including the PGS and RIMS) might not be valid for measuring men’s grief experiences, particularly in relation to potential differences between internal versus external grieving styles [23, 84, 89, 95].”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
Across other grief measures, men scored highly on the Devastating Event (RIMS), Denial and Social Desirability (GEI-L), and Avoidance (IES) subscales.
“Across other grief measures, men scored highly on the Devastating Event (RIMS), Denial and Social Desirability (GEI-L), and Avoidance (IES) subscales [23, 76, 91, 94, 96].”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
The difference between men's and women's grief scores was approximately 20 points on the PGS and IES, and 3 points on the RIMS.
“This was indicated by approximately 20 points of difference on the PGS and IES [88, 91, 93], and 3 points of difference on the RIMS [23, 76].”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
Of the 12 quantitative studies that provided raw grief scores for men, outcomes varied considerably both between studies and within them.
“Of the 12 quantitative studies that provided raw grief scores for men, outcomes varied considerably both between studies and within them [23, 25, 67, 76, 84, 87, 88, 91, 93–96].”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
Only one quantitative study found age to be a significant predictor of grief following miscarriage, with men aged < 35 years scoring higher on the Devastating Event subscale of the RMIS.
“Only one quantitative study [23] found age to be a significant predictor of grief following miscarriage, with men aged < 35 years scoring higher on the Devastating Event subscale of the RMIS.”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
Of the included quantitative studies, 16 included an analysis on predictors of men's grief and/or correlations to related factors.
“Of the included quantitative studies, 16 included an analysis on predictors of men’s grief and/or correlations to related factors [23–25, 67, 76, 84, 86–93, 95, 96].”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
In five quantitative studies, increasing gestational age was associated with higher grief scores.
“In five quantitative studies, increasing gestational age was associated with higher grief scores [23–25, 67, 93].”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
One of three studies examining presence of living children at the time of loss found a relationship to worsened grief in men.
“Similarly, one of three studies examining the presence of living children at the time of loss found a relationship to worsened grief in men [23].”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
In some quantitative studies, men's grief was less intense compared to women's.
“Although men’s grief was less intense compared to women’s in some quantitative studies [23, 67, 76, 88, 91, 93, 94, 96], qualitative studies identified the significant impact of loss on men.”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
Maternal age has and has not been found to be a significant predictor of grief.
“Similarly, maternal age both has [23, 101], and has not [24, 104], been found to be a significant predictor of grief.”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
Some authors have questioned the ecological validity of current grief measures.
“Although inconsistencies concerning grief between quantitative and qualitative studies highlight the varied nature of men’s experiences, some authors have questioned the ecological validity of current grief measures [23, 84, 89, 95].”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
Some items and subscales of PGS have been criticised for measuring traditionally feminine expressions of grief, potentially under-recognising masculine expressions.
“As such, some of the items and subscales have been criticised for measuring more traditionally ‘feminine’ (or intuitive) expressions of grief, which may under-recognise more ‘masculine’ (or instrumental) expressions and responses.”
From Men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal loss: a systematic review and emerging theoretical model (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
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- Authors
- Huffman, C. S., Schwartz, T. A., & Swanson, K. M.
- Affiliations
- Appalachian State University (US)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Seattle University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Huffman, Carolyn S.
- Venue
- Women's Health Issues
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-09
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 570-578
- ISSN
- 1049-3867 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1801318408
- Cited by
- 41
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 3
- FWCI
- 2.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Women s Health Issues (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- NIH (5 R01 NR005343)
- National Institute of Nursing Research (5-T32-NR007091-14, 5 R01 NR005343)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Grief, Bereavement, and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Reproductive Health and Technologies
- Keywords
- miscarriage, couples, gender differences, reproductive factors, infertility, mental health history, guilt, social isolation, grief, gestational age, age
- MeSH terms
- Abortion, Spontaneous, Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Age Factors, Family Characteristics, Female, Grief, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Pregnancy, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sex Factors, Social Support, Reproductive History
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