Cited by 3,241Behavioral Health and InterventionsGrit, Self-Efficacy, and MotivationDecision-Making and Behavioral Economics

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Implementation intentions and goal achievement: a meta-analysis of effects and processes

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Gollwitzer, Peter M., Sheeran, Paschal·2006·Advances in Experimental Social Psychology

DOI 10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38002-1

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“Although accumulated research supports this idea (e.g., Armitage & Conner, 2001; Sheeran, 2002; Sutton, 1998), there is also contrary evidence that gives credence to the proverb that ‘‘the road to hell is paved with good intentions’’ (Orbell & Sheeran, 1998; Sheeran, 2002).”
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“Still, saying “Let’s climb Marmolada” will remain a tall tale, unless the intention turns into a concrete plan (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
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“They have been shown to be effective in various domains such as achievement, interpersonal relations and health, as revealed in a meta-analysis of 94 studies [20].”
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“These hypotheses stem from the consumer literature: anticipated emotion and the model of action phase (MAP), better known as goal-directed behaviour theory (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
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“…be conceptualized through implementation intentions, which posits that successful goal achievement is facilitated by a second act of willing that furnishes the goal intention with an if–then plan specifying when, where, and how the person will initiate responses that promote goal realization [33].”
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“The term intention is based on the work of Gollwitzer in the field of social psychology [21, 22].”
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“…this is recognized as a small effect size (Cohen, 1992), it is within the range of effect sizes that have been found in previous studies of implementation intentions for other social behaviours (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006) and self-harm in people who present to hospital (Armitage et al., 2016).”
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“…encourage desired behavior (Marteau et al., 2012); development of implementation intentions, strategic “ if … then ” plans for what one will do in situations that challenge behavioral goals (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006); and medication-assisted treatment for substance use disorders (Connery, 2015).”
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“…such as medication financial support programs, eye doctors, diabetes educators, and smoking cessation counselors and help patients develop specific action plans to overcome these barriers (Gollwitzer, 1999; Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006; Sheeran, Webb, & Gollwitzer, 2005; Webb & Sheeran, 2008).”
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“The method has been successfully applied to a wide range of health behaviours [14].”
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“…have high levels of self- Study Type of Data Past Performance Customer Sa sfac on Manager Created Preset Goals A tudes and Emo ons Dependent Variable Gollwitzer and Sheeran (2006) Meta-Analysis No No Yes Implementa on Inten ons Goal A ainment Hollenbeck et al. (1989) Experiment Control No No…”
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“This is an important finding since action planning is an important mediator of successful health behavior change [17].”
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“…problems via the formation of a link between specific cognitive or behavioural action plans and how, when, and where an intended goal will be pursued (Gollwitzer, 1996; Gollwitzer, 1999; Gollwitzer & Brandstätter, 1997; Gollwitzer, Heckhausen, & Steller, 1990; Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
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“…aligning with the notion that (some level of) working memory is essential for such a self-help strategy to be effective [27, 28], and (2) that the MCSI would be more effective for those with low working memory capacity, supporting the idea that it can function as a compensatory strategy [26].”
Influential
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“[13] Mental Contrasting A self-regulatory strategy that helps build strong goal commitment via increasing perceived self-efficacy.”
Background
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“This provides evidence that planning for distraction obstacles using IIs can be effective in educational contexts, in addition to the more established health contexts (Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2006).”
Influential
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“Action planning—specifying exactly when, where, and how a behavior will be performed—can also be important in behavioral maintenance [11], as the combination of these cues is likely to make behaviors automatic over time [12].”
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Holding, A. C., Cunningham, C., Koestner, R., & Oettingen, G. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112617 · Cited by 5
“The use of a university student sample precludes generalizability of the findings, although previous research indicates that if-then plans promote behaviour change in multiple domains and populations (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
Influential
Combining anchoring with financial incentives to increase physical activity: a randomized controlled trial among college students
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“…methods that are increasingly being used to promote various health behaviors, including physical activity (Black-man et al., 2013; Direito et al., 2017; King et al., 2016; 1 The anchoring intervention is a specific form of an Implementation Intention (Gollwitzer 1999; Gollwitzer and Sheeran 2006).”
Usability and feasibility of an online intervention for older adults to support changes to routines and the home ('Light, activity and sleep in my daily life')
Gerhardsson, K. M., Hassan, M., Tornberg, Å. B., & Schmidt, S. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-20309-y · Cited by 5
“Behavioural skills include practising fundamental lighting design, sleep restriction, and listing action plans to make goal-striving habitual behaviour [41, 42].”
Background
‘I Tried to Understand What the Student Really Needs: Using Simulations to Promote a Need-Supporting Dialogical Orientation in Teacher Educators
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Boosting water conservation in shower behaviour: the impact of implementation intentions
Salmon, S. J., & Brouwer, S. (2025) · Sustainable Water Resources Management · doi:10.1007/s40899-025-01235-2 · Cited by 5
“Implementation intentions are shown to be effective in several behaviour domains, such as the domain of eating, exercising, academic performance, and also pro-environmental behaviour (Gollwitzer and Sheeran 2006; Bamberg 2002a ).”
Influential
Navigating to Success: Intentional Self-Regulation and Goal-Directed Skills
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Enright, G., Gyani, A., Raadsma, S., Allman-Farinelli, M. A., Rissel, C. E., Innes‐Hughes, C., Lukeis, S., Rodgers, A., & Redfern, J. (2016) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-012536 · Cited by 5
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“A peer delivered intervention can reduce stigma which is recognized as an important barrier to accessing services and facilities [10] signposting to local resources provides important informational and potentially emotional support; [18] and If–Then action planning has been shown to be effective in enabling people to…”
Background
Health Behavior
Conner, M. T., & Norman, P. E. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818697-8.00060-1 · Cited by 13
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Łakuta, P., Krankowska, D. C., Marcinkiewicz, P., Bociąga‐Jasik, M., & Komorska‐Błażewicz, A. (2022) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12357 · Cited by 6
Multimediales Lernen: Lehren und Lernen mit Texten und Bildern
Scheiter, K., Richter, J., & Renkl, A. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-54373-3_4-1 · Cited by 5
The online entrepreneurship program effect on young people's self-efficacy and intention: an experiment in Argentina, Belgium, Bulgaria, China and Romania
Vankov, D., Kozma, D., Vankov, B., Chiers, J., Galanternik, M., & Wang, L. (2023) · Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies · doi:10.1108/jeee-12-2022-0385 · Cited by 11
Predicting COVID-19 and Influenza Vaccination Confidence and Uptake in the United States
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“Individuals who have already received or are 100% ready and committed to receiving the vaccine upon availability and/or eligibility are considered vaccine-inclined or -conﬁdent (but see implementation intention [9].”
Background
Perceptions of self-monitoring dietary intake according to a plate-based approach: A qualitative study
Kheirmandparizi, M., Gouin, J., Bouchaud, C. C., Kebbe, M., Bergeron, C., Civi, R. M., Rhodes, R. E., Farnesi, B., Bouguila, N., Conklin, A., et al. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0294652 · Cited by 5
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Yan, V. X., Schuetze, B. A., & Rea, S. D. (2023) · Human Arenas · doi:10.1007/s42087-023-00383-1 · Cited by 6
“Finally, learners should have concrete plans for implementing the strategies (e.g., setting implementation intentions that concretely link an external cue to the initiation of behavior, Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
Do teachers colleges prepare more effective teachers? Evidence from a top school district in China
Qi, Z., Xie, X., Ye, X., & Wei, Y. (2024) · China Economic Review · doi:10.1016/j.chieco.2024.102225 · Cited by 5
Barriers and facilitators of habit building for long-term adherence to antihypertensive therapy among people with hypertensive disorders in Los Angeles, California: a qualitative study
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“18 26 27 32 To remedy this drawback, we designed ‘Behavioral Economics for anti-hypertensive Therapy Adherence’ (BETA), an intervention that uses text messages and small conditional incentives informed by behavioural economics (BE) to help participants stay motivated during the habit formation…”
Method
Self-control and behavioral public policy
Hofmann, W., Grelle, S., Nielsen, K. S., & Kukowski, C. A. (2024) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2024.101873 · Cited by 5
The Application of Behavioral Economics to Teacher Professional Development
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“…and plan making can increase the likelihood that people reach a variety of goals, such as voting (Nickerson & Rogers, 2010), completing medical appointments (Greiner et al., 2014), and eating a healthier diet (Armitage, 2007; for reviews, see Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006; Rogers et al., 2015).”
Motivational context determines the impact of aversive outcomes on mental effort allocation
Fahey, M. P., Yee, D. M., Leng, X., Tarlow, M., & Shenhav, A. (2023) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105973 · Cited by 9
A Mixed Methods Evaluation of Implementation Outcomes of a Self-Regulation Strategy for Health Education: Perspectives of Clinicians and Older Adults With and Without Traumatic Brain Injury
Kemp, A. M., & O’Brien, K. H. (2025) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2024_ajslp-24-00100 · Cited by 5
Response-efficacy messages produce stronger passwords than self-efficacy messages … for now: A longitudinal experimental study of the efficacy of coping message types on password creation behaviour
Simon, J., Watson, S. J., & van Sintemaartensdijk, I. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100615 · Cited by 5
Prevention of weight gain among overweight adults: development and evaluation of a computer-tailored self-regulation intervention
van Genugten, L. (2012) · Cited by 5
A Computational Model of Habit Learning to Enable Ambient Support for Lifestyle Change
Klein, M. C. A., Mogles, N. M., Jan Treur, A., & van Wissen, A. (2012) · Cited by 5
Emotional or instrumental support? Distinct effects on vigorous exercise and affect
Rackow, P., Berli, C., Lüscher, J., Łuszczyńska, A., & Scholz, U. (2017) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.07.011 · Cited by 5
(Wie) Können Coaching-Praktiker*innen von Wissenschaft lernen?
Schöll, W., Greif, S., & Möller, H. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-49483-7_9 · Cited by 5
Agiles Sprintlernen – ein Konzept für dezentrales betriebliches Lernen: Empirische Begründung und praktische Erfahrungen
Jungclaus, J., Korge, G., Arndt, P. A., & Bauer, A. (2019) · Gruppe Interaktion Organisation Zeitschrift für Angewandte Organisationspsychologie (GIO) · doi:10.1007/s11612-019-00468-y · Cited by 7
The role of neuropsychological mechanisms in implementation intentions to reduce alcohol consumption among heavy drinkers: a randomized trial
McGrath, E., Elliott, R., Millar, T., & Armitage, C. J. (2019) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-019-00078-5 · Cited by 5
The influence of conscious thought is best observed over time.
Masicampo, E. J., Luebber, F., & Baumeister, R. F. (2019) · Psychology of Consciousness Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/cns0000205 · Cited by 5
THEORIES, MODELS AND TRENDS OF SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOUR GAP
Čapienė, A. (2019) · Management Theory and Studies for Rural Business and Infrastructure Development · doi:10.15544/mts.2019.27 · Cited by 5
Exploring dimensions of health behaviors’ representations
Shiloh, S., & Nudelman, G. (2020) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2019.1707828 · Cited by 5
“…changes, moving from the motivational/ pre-decisional phase to post-decisional/planning phases, and from behavioral initiation to maintenance of health behaviors (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006; Schwarzer, 2014; Webb & Sheeran, 2005), involves decreasing psychological distance from the behavior.”
Background
Addressing Underserved Populations and Disparities in Behavior Change
Schüz, B., & Hooper, M. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.027 · Cited by 5
Psychometric Properties of the German Version of the Self-Regulation of Eating Behavior Questionnaire
Schmalbach, I., Schmalbach, B., Zenger, M., Petrowski, K., Beutel, M. E., Hilbert, A., & Brähler, E. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.649867 · Cited by 7
“For example, to have an (initial) plan or an intention is not the same (Ajzen, 1985; Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2006) opening scope for divergent interpretations of these concepts.”
Background

Authors: Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P.
Affiliations: University of Sheffield (GB)
ORCID: Gollwitzer, Peter M.
Sheeran, Paschal
Venue: Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
Publisher: Elsevier
Published: 2006
Pages: 69-119
ISSN: 0065-2601 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38002-1
OpenAlex: W1818536883
Cited by: 3,236
References: 166
Citations by year: 2026: 142 · 2025: 150 · 2024: 192 · 2023: 251 · 2022: 178 · 2021: 196 · 2020: 256 · 2019: 177 · 2018: 185 · 2017: 168 · 2016: 189 · 2015: 188 · 2014: 174 · 2013: 161 · 2012: 144
FWCI: 243.46
Type: book chapter
Language: en
Open access: green
nbn-resolving.de
Licence: cc-by-nc-nd
Locations: Advances in experimental social psychology (publishedVersion)
KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Grit, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
Keywords: implementation intentions, goal achievement, goal pursuit, self-regulation, goal-directed behavior

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Implementation intentions and goal achievement: a meta-analysis of effects and processes

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