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Implementation intentions and goal achievement: a meta-analysis of effects and processes
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“Also, as reviewed by Gollwitzer and Sheeran (2006), adapting specific implementation intentions (“if-then”-plans rather than overall goal intentions) may have a strong effect on goal attainment.”
From How Study Environments Foster Academic Procrastination: Overview and Recommendations (2020) · cites this paper as Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2006
In the citing paper
“For women with, or at risk of GDM, bridging this intention–behaviour gap is likely to require specific action planning alongside concise, credible and condition‐relevant guidance [53, 54].”
From Preconception Perceptions, Knowledge and Behaviours of Women With Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Qualitative Study (2026) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“One encourages people to form realistic, concrete plans for how to implement their new health-related goals in specific situations (Gollwitzer & Sheeran 2006).”
From The Psychology of Change: Self-Affirmation and Social Psychological Intervention (2014) · cites this paper as Gollwitzer & Sheeran 2006
In the citing paper
“Gollwitzer and Sheeran (2006) found that implementation intentions had a positive effect on improving goal attainment in terms of achievements, relationships, and health, with a medium to large effect size [Cohen' d = 0.65 (95% CI = 0.6, 0.7)].”
From A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Mental Contrasting With Implementation Intentions on Goal Attainment (2021) · cites this paper as Gollwitzer and Sheeran (2006)
In the citing paper
“Studies show that implementing study intentions and plans enhances self-regulation and performance (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006;Schwinger & Otterpohl, 2017).”
From The Potential of Exam Wrappers in Higher Education Assessment Practice: Fostering Self-Efficacy Through Guided Self-Reflection (2025) · cites this paper as Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006
In the citing paper
“we synthesized the evidence across these studies, as implementation intentions are considered a domain‐general self‐regulation strategy applicable to a wide range of goals.”
From The effectiveness of implementation intentions in children: A systematic review and meta‐analysis (2026) · cites this paper as Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006
In the citing paper
“As recently reported in a meta-analysis, implementation intentions facilitate the attainment of all kinds of goals (e.g., academic, health, and interpersonal goals; Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
From Implementation Intentions Facilitate Response Inhibition in Children with ADHD (2008) · cites this paper as Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006
Citations
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“Although accumulated research supports this idea (e.g., Armitage & Conner, 2001; Sheeran, 2002; Sutton, 1998), there is also contrary evidence that gives credence to the proverb that ‘‘the road to hell is paved with good intentions’’ (Orbell & Sheeran, 1998; Sheeran, 2002).”
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“…work suggests that people derive value learning from the past, planning for the future, or experiencing the benefits of nostalgia and hope—processes linked to well-being improvements (Barnett, 2014; Epstude & Roese, 2008; Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006; Sedikides, Wildschut, Arndt, & Routledge, 2008).”
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“Second, self-control is associated with the propensity to form implementation intentions [43] which are an established moderator of intention-behavior relations [44].”
BackgroundSelf-citationGoing beyond the individual level in self-control research
Hofmann, W. (2023) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-023-00256-y · Cited by 52
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“They encompass the following approaches: (a) clarification of personal health objectives (“goal setting”; Locke & Latham, 1990 ); (b) contemplation of different actions to achieve these health objectives (“decisional balance sheet”; Miller & Rollnick, 2002 ); (c) formation of strong goal intentions (“decision-making a…”
BackgroundEmotion and control in the planning of goals
Maglio, S. J., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (2014) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-014-9407-4 · Cited by 46
“These plans, termed implementation intentions, have increased the probability of goal attainment across a wide variety of situations, applications, and populations (for a review, see Gollwitzer and Sheeran 2006).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe overlooked relationship between motivational abilities and posttraumatic stress: a review
Simmen‐Janevska, K., Brandstätter, V., & Maercker, A. R. A. (2012) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.3402/ejpt.v3i0.18560 · Cited by 54
“…processes that are necessary to cope effectively with typical problems, such as initiating goal-directed actions (forming implementation intentions: Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006), persisting in the face of competing action tendencies (action control: Kuhl, 1984), and suppressing impulsive reactions…”
BackgroundHow to motivate yourself and others? Intended and unintended consequences
Schroeder, J., & Fishbach, A. (2015) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2015.09.001 · Cited by 52
“A meta-analysis based on close to one hundred studies shows a significant effect on increased rate of goal attainment when implementation intentions are set (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
MethodEffects of an awareness raising campaign on intention and behavioural determinants for handwashing
Seimetz, E., Kumar, S., & Mosler, H. (2016) · Health Education Research · doi:10.1093/her/cyw002 · Cited by 47
“Intention formation has indeed been stated to imply a commitment to perform a certain behaviour [29].”
BackgroundNeugebauer, J., Ray, D. G., & Sassenberg, K. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.02.007 · Cited by 48
Adam, A.-F., & Fayolle, A. J.-C. (2016) · The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation · doi:10.1177/1465750316648569 · Cited by 47
“A metaanalysis of 94 studies shows that it actually affects goaldirected behaviour (Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2006).”
Backgroundvan Nassau, F., van der Ploeg, H. P., Abrahamsen, F. E., Andersen, E., Anderson, A. S., Bosmans, J. E., Bunn, C., Chalmers, M., Clissmann, C., Gill, J. M. R., et al. (2016) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-016-3255-y · Cited by 52
“appropriate); EuroFIT aims to promote sustained lifestyle change by: o drawing more explicitly on motivational theories (Self-Determination Theory [18] and Achievement Goal Theory [19]) to encourage men to develop internalised and self-relevant motivation for becoming more active, sitting less and eating a healthier d…”
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Mulligan, K., McBain, H. B., Lamontagne-Godwin, F., Chapman, J., Haddad, M., Jones, J., Flood, C., Thomas, D. A., & Simpson, A. (2017) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/hex.12543 · Cited by 51
Newton, T., & Asimakopoulou, K. G. (2017) · BDJ · doi:10.1038/sj.bdj.2017.659 · Cited by 48
“making a plan of when, where and how to engage in a behaviour makes a significant difference to the likelihood that the behaviour change will occur (12).”
BackgroundEsteve, R., López-Martínez, A. E., Peters, M. L., Serrano‐Ibáñez, E. R., Ruiz-Párraga, G. T., & Ramírez‐Maestre, C. (2018) · Pain Research and Management · doi:10.1155/2018/6291719 · Cited by 50
“)e action phase model of goal attainment [73] has been proposed as a useful theoretical framework to integrate motivational strategies in pain intervention programs [74].”
BackgroundLeightley, D., Puddephatt, J., Jones, N., Mahmoodi, T., Chui, Z., Field, M., Drummond, C., Rona, R. J., Fear, N. T., & Goodwin, L. (2018) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/10074 · Cited by 49
“4) Goal (setting and review): Participants can set goal(s) based on implementation intentions [37] methodology, visual feedback provides feedback on progress towards achieving goal(s) set.”
Post-materialistic values and entrepreneurial intention – the case of Saudi Arabia
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Kwaśnicka, D., Ntoumanis, N., Hunt, K., Gray, C. M., Newton, R. U., Gucciardi, D. F., Thøgersen‐Ntoumani, C., Olson, J. L., McVeigh, J. A., Kerr, D. A., et al. (2020) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1003136 · Cited by 49
“We also assessed goal facilitation and competing goals in relation to weight-loss goals [55], barriers [56] and planning [57] (all scores range 1–5), and habits using the Self-Report Behavioural Automaticity Index (SRBAI) for physical activity and for healthy eating [58] (both scales range 1–7).”
MethodResultCommentary: Goals and the intentions meant to fulfill them
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Cohen, A. (2008) · KOPS (University of Konstanz) · Cited by 46
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“However, because scheduling eschews forming conditional links between cues and responses, it should not promote automatisation of action initiation (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006, Martiny-Huenger et al., 2017).”
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“Indeed, this notion of practicing, in terms of “implementation intentions” (Gollwitzer 1999, Gollwitzer and Sheeran 2006, Nickerson and Rogers 2010) and “scripting” (Gentile 2010), has been shown to be critical in attitudinal and behavioral change.”
BackgroundBhattacharya, A., Hopkins, S., Sallis, A., Budd, E. L., & Ashiru-Oredope, D. A. I. (2016) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdw059 · Cited by 45
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“Research derived from a single goal focus has convincingly demonstrated the usefulness of designing a welldeveloped plan and breaking down larger goals into smaller, more achievable goals (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialMcCabe, P. C., Rubinson, F., Dragowski, E. A., & Elizalde-Utnick, G. (2013) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.21702 · Cited by 55
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“To understand the working mechanisms of planning, one can refer to laboratory research on implementation intentions (cf. Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006, for a review).”
BackgroundSchwarzer, R., Richert, J., Kreausukon, P., Remme, L., Wiedemann, A. U., & Reuter, T. (2010) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207591003674479 · Cited by 51
“Planning has been found to mediate the intention–behavior relation (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006 ).”
BackgroundErnsting, A., Gellert, P. R., Schneider, M., & Lippke, S. (2012) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2012.753072 · Cited by 44
“The intention–behaviour gap in vaccination behaviour appeared to be smaller than in other behaviours (Gollwitzer et al., 2006; Sheeran, 2002; Sniehotta, Scholz, & Schwarzer, 2005).”
BackgroundResultWebb, T. L., Ononaiye, M. S. P., Sheeran, P., Reidy, J. G., & Lavda, A. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167210367785 · Cited by 44
“Therefore, the findings replicate the often reported moderation of planning effects by the presence of a volitional problem—implementation intentions are helpful mainly when people experience difficulty regulating their behavior (for a review, see Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationA Randomized-Controlled Trial of Social Norm Interventions to Increase Physical Activity
Wally, C. M., & Cameron, L. D. (2017) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-017-9887-z · Cited by 44
“These instructions were supplemented by implementation intentions [27], which are if-then statements that strengthen automatic responses to cues, as a means of enhancing adherence to pedometer use.”
BackgroundThürmer, J. L., Wieber, F., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00603 · Cited by 49
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“Individuals with clearer behavioral motivation to engage in a task have lower tendency to procrastinate on the corresponding task, thus leading to an increase in the behavior, whereas individuals with higher tendency to procrastinate often have weaker behavioral motivation [3,22,28].”
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Luoto, J., Levine, D. I., Albert, J., & Luby, S. P. (2014) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2014.02.010 · Cited by 49
“Some people who intend to act then forget to do so (Gollwitzer & Sheeran 2006).”
BackgroundEffectiveness of the use of implementation intentions on reduction of substance use: A meta-analysis
Malaguti, A., Ciocanel, O., Sani, F., Dillon, J. F., Eriksen, A., & Power, K. (2020) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108120 · Cited by 48
“65 reported in a highly cited meta-analysis of behaviour change studies (Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2006).”
BackgroundGerber, M., Cheval, B., Cody, R., Colledge, F., Hohberg, V., Klimentidis, Y. C., Lang, C., Looser, V. N., Ludyga, S., Stults‐Kolehmainen, M., et al. (2025) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00021.2024 · Cited by 59
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“Several studies indicate that the link between intention and behaviours may be modified by social-cognitive and environmental variables (Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2006; Pomery et al., 2009).”
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“There is also empirical support for including “if...then” tasks in interventions (eg, action planning) for a variety of behaviors [41] and student populations [42].”
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“A key meta-analysis from Gollwitzer and Sheeran (2006) of both published and unpublished investigations demonstrates that implementation intentions have a medium to large effect on behavioural change.”
BackgroundResultMack, B., Tampe-Mai, K., Kouros, J., Roth, F., Taube, O., & Diesch, E. (2019) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2019.01.024 · Cited by 43
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Roberts, B. R. T., MacLeod, C. M., & Fernandes, M. A. (2022) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000360 · Cited by 51
“It has been reported that planning if-then statements for future goals —“ implementation intentions ” as Gollwitzer (1999) calls them — brings memory bene fi ts to those who adopt a high commitment to the intentioned plan (for a meta-analysis, see Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
BackgroundA model of behavioral climate change education for higher educational institutions
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“Commitment to attaining a goal will not necessarily prepare people for dealing effectively with the self-regulation problems (e.g., planning how to achieve a goal or getting started) of goal attainment (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
BackgroundLi, G., Liu, W., Wang, Z., & Liu, M. (2016) · Annals of Operations Research · doi:10.1007/s10479-016-2202-8 · Cited by 43
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“…also found that individuals are more likely to engage in new behaviors or interventions if they have developed implementation intentions, which are plans detailing where, when, and how they will engage, including how they will overcome specific obstacles if they arise (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
BackgroundBoomsma, C., Pahl, S., & Andrade, J. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01780 · Cited by 49
“Long-term goals can be made less abstract by forming implementation intentions, or specific behavioral plans, thus increasing the cognitive availability of long-term goals (Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2006; Andrade et al., 2012).”
BackgroundBryan, A. D., Jakicic, J. M., Hunter, C. M., Evans, M. E., Yanovski, S. Z., & Epstein, L. H. (2017) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.21924 · Cited by 45
“While these and other theoretical frameworks have amassed extensive empirical support, particularly in the area of physical activity,(36, 37, 38) the bulk of work in this area is targeted to the critical role of intentions to be active.”
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Armitage, C. J., & Sprigg, C. A. (2010) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.32.3.359 · Cited by 35
“In contrast, participants in laboratory research are most often provided with an implementation intention by the experimenter and asked to say it to themselves (e.g., Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialMediating the effects of self-criticism and self-oriented perfectionism on goal pursuit
Powers, T. A., Milyavskaya, M., & Koestner, R. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.031 · Cited by 41
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“In a meta-analysis of published findings from 94 articles, implementation intentions had a positive effect on goal attainment of medium-to-large magnitude (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
BackgroundHardeman, W., Kinmonth, A. L., Michie, S., & Sutton, S. R. (2010) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1348/135910710x523481 · Cited by 40
“Biases” in Adaptive Natural Resource Management
Iftekhar, M. S., & Pannell, D. J. (2015) · Conservation Letters · doi:10.1111/conl.12189 · Cited by 40
“asking mangers to justify their decisions to external parties (Gollwitzer and Sheeran 2006).”
BackgroundWiedemann, A., Lippke, S., & Schwarzer, R. (2012) · Journal of behavioral medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-011-9364-2 · Cited by 45
“Intentions were assessed as control variable as a large body of research confirmed their influence on the effects of planning (e.g., Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006; Lippke et al., 2004), ‘I intend to eat at least five servings of fruit or vegetables per day’.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialRisk information, risk salience, and adolescent sexual behavior: Experimental evidence from Cameroon
Pascaline Dupas, Y., Huillery, É., & Seban, J. (2017) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2017.10.007 · Cited by 40
Tracing risky decisions for oneself and others: The role of intuition and deliberation
Barrafrem, K., & Hausfeld, J. (2019) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.joep.2019.102188 · Cited by 39
Thürmer, J. L., Wieber, F., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2020) · Management Decision · doi:10.1108/md-08-2020-1088 · Cited by 48
Self-citationBieleke, M., & Keller, L. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110500 · Cited by 45
Peyton, T., & Zigarmi, D. (2021) · BRQ Business Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/23409444211002210 · Cited by 47
“In addition, meta-analyses showing strong relationships between intentions and behaviors have been reported by both the social and health psychology fields (e.g., Cooke & Sheeran, 2004; Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006; Webb & Sheeran, 2006).”
BackgroundThe 8th International Congress on SLE
(2007) · APLAR Journal of Rheumatology · doi:10.1111/j.1758-0854.2008.01001.x · Cited by 41
Possible selves and career transition: It's who you want to be, not what you want to do
Plimmer, G., & Schmidt, A. (2007) · New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education · doi:10.1002/ace.257 · Cited by 46
“People fail to implement their goals for a number of reasons (Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialDynamics in Self‐Regulation: Plan Execution Self‐Efficacy and Mastery of Action Plans
Scholz, U., Sniehotta, F. F., Schüz, B., & Oeberst, A. (2007) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2007.00277.x · Cited by 39
“Individuals who plan in detail when, where, and how to act are more likely to act on their intentions (i.e., implementation intentions; Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006 ).”
BackgroundChanging Behavior Beyond the Here and Now
Rogers, T., & Frey, E. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118468333.ch25 · Cited by 41
Lin, H., Xu, D., Yang, M., Ma, X., Yan, N., Chen, H., He, S., & Deng, N. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-058229 · Cited by 43
Stage-Matched Minimal Interventions to Enhance Physical Activity in Chinese Adolescents
Schwarzer, R., Cao, D. S., & Lippke, S. (2010) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.03.015 · Cited by 45
Dill, B., & Holton, R. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00139 · Cited by 40
Papies, E. K., & Nicolaije, K. A. H. (2011) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.08.004 · Cited by 39
Perfectionism and Health Behaviors: A Self- Regulation Resource Perspective
Sirois, F. M. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-18582-8_3 · Cited by 42
The career decision-making competence: a new construct for the career realm
Ceschi, A., Costantini, A., Phillips, S. D., & Sartori, R. (2016) · European journal of training and development · doi:10.1108/ejtd-07-2016-0047 · Cited by 42
Saddawi‐Konefka, D., Baker, K. H., GUARINO, A. J., Burns, S. M., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Charnin, J. E. (2017) · Journal of Graduate Medical Education · doi:10.4300/jgme-d-16-00703.1 · Cited by 39
“The gap between intention and action results from many factors, including failure to initiate goaldirected behaviors and the derailment of relevant efforts when distractions arise.(5) This intention-action gap may be especially pronounced for residents, who are often highly absorbed in ongoing clinical duties, emotion…”
BackgroundSelf-citationEL‐Awad, U., Fathi, A., Petermann, F., & Reinelt, T. (2017) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci7110146 · Cited by 39
“They are common in health psychology [83], have even been utilized by children with externalizing problems [84,85], and meta-analytical effects are moderate to high [86,87].”
BackgroundSelf-Control in Cyberspace: Applying Dual Systems Theory to a Review of Digital Self-Control Tools
Lyngs, U., Lukoff, K., Slovák, P., Binns, R., Slack, A., Inzlicht, M., Kleek, M. G. V., & Shadbolt, N. (2019) · Research Portal (King's College London) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1902.00157 · Cited by 42
“e.g. from Reddit to Trello), and numerous tools implement similar functionality. Such apps seem to be automating ‘implementation intentions’ (if-when rules for linking a context to a desired response [66]), an intervention which digital behaviour change researchers have highlighted as a promising way to scaffold trans…”
MethodBosch, I. C., Vilà, I., & Palomo, R. R. (2019) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2019.05.024 · Cited by 45
Planning and Implementation Intention Interventions
Rhodes, R. E., Grant, S. J., & de Bruijn, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.039 · Cited by 46
Attitudes and Persuasive Communication Interventions
Hamilton, K., & Johnson, B. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.031 · Cited by 44
Changing Behavior Using Habit Theory
Orbell, S., & Verplanken, B. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.013 · Cited by 50
Metadata
- Authors
- Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Sheffield (GB)
- Venue
- Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier
- Published
- 2006
- Pages
- 69-119
- ISSN
- 0065-2601 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1818536883
- Cited by
- 3,236
- References
- 166
- Citations by year
- 2026: 142 · 2025: 150 · 2024: 192 · 2023: 251 · 2022: 178 · 2021: 196 · 2020: 256 · 2019: 177 · 2018: 185 · 2017: 168 · 2016: 189 · 2015: 188 · 2014: 174 · 2013: 161 · 2012: 144
- FWCI
- 243.46
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- nbn-resolving.de
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Advances in experimental social psychology (publishedVersion)
- KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Grit, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Keywords
- implementation intentions, goal achievement, goal pursuit, self-regulation, goal-directed behavior
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