Parvalbumin-immunoreactive neurons are reduced in the prefrontal cortex of schizophrenics
Abstract
Recent studies have provided evidence for a functional impairment of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-containing interneurons in the prefrontal cortex of schizophrenics. This evidence includes reported deficits of basket and chandelier cells, which are known to contain the calcium-binding protein parvalbumin. Using a monoclonal antibody against parvalbumin we investigated possible changes in this subpopulation of neurons in the prefrontal cortex of schizophrenic cases and controls. Significantly reduced numbers of parvalbumin-immunoreactive neurons were observed in laminae III and IV, while no difference was detected in cortical width. Our findings are consistent with damage following a toxic insult, occurring during a developmental 'window of vulnerability' and specifically affecting this subpopulation of GABAergic neurons.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Reduced PV and GAD67 protein levels are seen in both prefrontal and temporal cortex of post-mortem brain tissues from schizophrenia patients.
“Reduced PV and GAD67 protein levels are also seen in both prefrontal and temporal cortex of post-mortem brain tissues (Beasley and Reynolds, 1997; Curley et al., 2011; Glausier et al., 2014).”
From The Perineuronal ‘Safety’ Net? Perineuronal Net Abnormalities in Neurological Disorders (2018) · cites this paper as Beasley and Reynolds, 1997
PVI circuits are altered in schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder despite heterogeneity in etiology.
“Despite heterogeneity in the etiology across schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder, PVI circuits are altered in these psychiatric disorders.”
From Oxidative stress-driven parvalbumin interneuron impairment as a common mechanism in models of schizophrenia (2017) · cites this paper as [6]
Cites
Hsu, S. M., Raine, L., & Fanger, H. (1981) · Journal of Histochemistry & Cytochemistry · doi:10.1177/29.4.6166661 · Cited by 14,248 · see citing works
Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research.
Feighner, J. P., Robins, E., Guze, S. B., Woodruff, R. A., Winokur, G., & Munoz, R. A. (1972) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1972.01750190059011 · Cited by 5,491 · see citing works
Implications of Normal Brain Development for the Pathogenesis of Schizophrenia
Weinberger, D. R. (1987) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800190080012 · Cited by 3,724 · see citing works
Book Review: Measurement and Classification of Psychiatric Symptoms
Priest, R. G. (1975) · Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine · doi:10.1177/003591577506800751 · Cited by 2,268 · see citing works
Akbarian, S. (1995) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950160008002 · Cited by 1,002 · see citing works
Benes, F. M. (1991) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1991.01810350036005 · Cited by 894 · see citing works
Abnormally High Neuronal Density in the Schizophrenic Cortex
Selemon, L. D. (1995) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950220015005 · Cited by 876 · see citing works
Prenatal developmental disturbances in the limbic allocortex in schizophrenics
Jakob, H., & Beckmann, H. (1986) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/bf01249090 · Cited by 875 · see citing works
Somogyi, P., Hodgson, A., Smith, A. D., Nunzi, M. G., Gorio, A., & Wu, J. (1984) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.04-10-02590.1984 · Cited by 731 · see citing works
Heyes, M. P., Saito, K., Crowley, J. S., DAVIS, L. E., Demitrack, M. A., Der, M. G., Dilling, L. A., Elia, J., Kruesi, M. J. P., Lackner, A. A., et al. (1992) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/115.5.1249 · Cited by 682 · see citing works
Akbarian, S. (1993) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820150007001 · Cited by 679 · see citing works
Hendry, S. H. C., Jones, E. G., Emson, P. C., Lawson, D. E. M., Heizmann, C. W., & Streit, P. (1989) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/bf00247904 · Cited by 512 · see citing works
Quantitative Cytoarchitectural Studies of the Cerebral Cortex of Schizophrenics
Benes, F. M. (1986) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1986.01800010033004 · Cited by 503 · see citing works
Condé, F., Lund, J. S., Jacobowitz, D. M., Baimbridge, K. G., & Lewis, D. A. (1994) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.903410109 · Cited by 500 · see citing works
Cell loss in the hippocampus of schizophrenics
Falkai, P., & Bogerts, B. (1986) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/bf00380943 · Cited by 487 · see citing works
Akbarian, S. (1993) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820150016002 · Cited by 456 · see citing works
Schizophrenia after prenatal exposure to 1957 A2 influenza epidemic
O’Callaghan, E., Sham, P. C., Takei, N., Murray, R. M., & Glover, G. R. (1991) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/0140-6736(91)92919-s · Cited by 402 · see citing works
Increased GABAA receptor binding in superficial layers of cingulate cortex in schizophrenics
Benes, F., Vincent, S. L., Alsterberg, G., Bird, E. D., & SanGiovanni, J. (1992) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.12-03-00924.1992 · Cited by 367 · see citing works
Visualization of chandelier cell axons by parvalbumin immunoreactivity in monkey cerebral cortex.
DeFelipe, J., Hendry, S. H. C., & Jones, E. G. (1989) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.86.6.2093 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
Schizophrenia and the brain: a prospective clinico-neuropathological study
Bruton, C. J., Crow, T. J., Frith, C., Johnstone, E. C., Owens, D. G. C., & Roberts, G. W. (1990) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291700017608 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
An Analysis of the Arrangement of Neurons in the Cingulate Cortex of Schizophrenic Patients
Benes, F. M. (1987) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800190024004 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Ontogeny of the calcium binding protein parvalbumin in the rat nervous system
Solbach, S., & Celio, M. R. (1991) · Anatomy and Embryology · doi:10.1007/bf00942742 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Nitsch, C., Scotti, A. L., Sommacal, A., & Kalt, G. (1989) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/0304-3940(89)90631-9 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Schizophrenia: developmental neuroscience and pathobiology
Waddington, J. L. (1993) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/0140-6736(93)90288-r · Cited by 194 · see citing works
DAVISS, S. R., & Lewis, D. A. (1995) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/0165-1781(95)02720-3 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Peptides, the limbic lobe and schizophrenia
Roberts, G. W., Ferrier, I. N., Lee, Y., Crow, T. J., Johnstone, E. C., Owens, D. G. C., Bacarese-Hamilton, A. J., McGregor, G. P., O'Shaughnessey, D. J., Polak, J. M., et al. (1983) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(83)90095-1 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Schizophrenia and the Hippocampus: The Embryological Hypothesis Extended
Conrad, A. J., & Scheibel, A. B. (1987) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/13.4.577 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Gliosis in schizophrenia: A survey
Roberts, G. W., Colter, N., Lofthouse, R., Bogerts, B., Zech, M.-P., & Crow, T. J. (1986) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(86)90285-4 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Development of the calcium‐binding proteins parvalbumin and calbindin in monkey striate cortex
Hendrickson, A. E., van Brederode, J. F. M., Mulligan, K. A., & Celio, M. R. (1991) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.903070409 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
[3H]Muscimol binding sites increased in autopsied brains of chronic schizophrenics
Hanada, S., Mita, T., Nishino, N., & Tanaka, C. (1987) · Life Sciences · doi:10.1016/0024-3205(87)90341-9 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Satoh, J., Tabira, T., Sano, M., Nakayama, H., & Tateishi, J. (1991) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/bf00293459 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Piggott, M. A., Perry, E. K., Perry, R. H., & COURT, J. A. (1992) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(92)91586-4 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Biological perspectives of schizophrenia
Helmchen, H., & Henn, F. A. (1987) · OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Ferrer, I., Soriano, E., Tuñón, T., Fonseca, M., & Guionnet, N. (1991) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/0022-510x(91)90250-b · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Synaptic rearrangements in medial prefrontal cortex of haloperidol-treated rats
Benes, F. M., Paskevich, P. A., Davidson, J., et al. (1985) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(85)90353-1 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Evers, P., & Uylings, H. B. M. (1994) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/0165-0270(94)90208-9 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Yan, Y., van Brederode, J. F. M., & Hendrickson, A. E. (1995) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.903630108 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Effects of Microwaves Biological Effects of Microwaves S. Barański P. Czerski
Schwan, H. P. (1978) · BioScience · doi:10.2307/1307495 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The neuropathology of schizophrenia
Harrison, P. J. (1999) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/122.4.593 · Cited by 1,677 · see citing works
GABAergic Interneurons Implications for Understanding Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder
Benes, F. (2001) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/s0893-133x(01)00225-1 · Cited by 1,082 · see citing works
The reduced neuropil hypothesis: a circuit based model of schizophrenia
Selemon, L. D., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1999) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(98)00281-9 · Cited by 909 · see citing works
Krystal, J. H., D'Souza, D. C., Mathalon, D., Perry, E., Belger, A., & Hoffman, R. (2003) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-003-1582-z · Cited by 530 · see citing works
Emerging principles of altered neural circuitry in schizophrenia
Benes, F. (2000) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0165-0173(99)00041-7 · Cited by 513 · see citing works
Zhang, Z. J., & Reynolds, G. P. (2002) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/s0920-9964(01)00188-8 · Cited by 460 · see citing works
Self-citationRajkowska, G., O'Dwyer, G., Teleki, Z., Stockmeier, C. A., & Miguel-Hidalgo, J. J. (2007) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301234 · Cited by 430 · see citing works
Neurochemical markers for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depression in postmortem brains
Torrey, E. F., Barci, B. M., Webster, M. J., Bartko, J. J., Meador-Woodruff, J. H., & Knable, M. B. (2005) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.10.019 · Cited by 426 · see citing works
Neural development, cell-cell signaling, and the “two-hit” hypothesis of schizophrenia
Maynard, T. M., Sikich, L., Lieberman, J. A., & LaMantia, A.-S. (2001) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a006887 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Beasley, C. L., Zhang, Z. J., Patten, I., & Reynolds, G. P. (2002) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(02)01360-4 · Cited by 374 · see citing works
Self-citationSteullet, P., Cabungcal, J.-H., Coyle, J., Didriksen, M., Gill, K., Grace, A. A., Hensch, T. K., LaMantia, A.-S., Lindemann, L., Maynard, T. M., et al. (2017) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2017.47 · Cited by 360 · see citing works
Benes, F. M., Vincent, S. L., & Todtenkopf, M. (2001) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01084-8 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
Benes, F. M. (2000) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/10.10.1014 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Interleukin-6 Mediates the Increase in NADPH-Oxidase in the Ketamine Model of Schizophrenia
Behrens, M. M., Ali, S. S., & Dugan, L. L. (2008) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4457-08.2008 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Prepulse inhibition and genetic mouse models of schizophrenia
Powell, S. B., Zhou, X., & Geyer, M. A. (2009) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2009.04.021 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Developmental origins of brain disorders: roles for dopamine
Money, K. M., & Stanwood, G. D. (2013) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2013.00260 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Involvement of NOX2 in the Development of Behavioral and Pathologic Alterations in Isolated Rats
Schiavone, S., Sorce, S., Dubois-Dauphin, M., Jaquet, V., Colaianna, M., Zotti, M., Cuomo, V., Trabace, L., & Krause, K.-H. (2009) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.04.033 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Optogenetic dissection of medial prefrontal cortex circuitry
Riga, D., Matos, M. R., Glas, A., Smit, A. B., Spijker, S., & Van den Oever, M. C. (2014) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2014.00230 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Rethinking schizophrenia in the context of normal neurodevelopment
Catts, V. S., Fung, S. J., Long, L. E., Joshi, D., Vercammen, A., Allen, K. M., Fillman, S. G., Rothmond, D. A., Sinclair, D., Tiwari, Y., et al. (2013) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2013.00060 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Abdul-Monim, Z., Neill, J. C., & Reynolds, G. P. (2007) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881107067097 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Self-citationInfluence of the hippocampus on interneurons of the rat prefrontal cortex
Tierney, P. L., Dégenètais, E., Thierry, A., Glowinski, J., & Gioanni, Y. (2004) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03501.x · Cited by 192 · see citing works
The Perineuronal ‘Safety’ Net? Perineuronal Net Abnormalities in Neurological Disorders
Wen, T. H., Binder, D. K., Ethell, I. M., & Razak, K. A. (2018) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2018.00270 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Glutamatergic Synaptic Dysregulation in Schizophrenia: Therapeutic Implications
Coyle, J. T., Basu, A., Benneyworth, M., Balu, D., & Konopaske, G. (2012) · Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-25758-2_10 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Steullet, P., Neijt, H. C., Cuénod, M., & Do, K. Q. (2006) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.10.014 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Wang, C. Z., Yang, S. F., Xia, Y., & Johnson, K. M. (2008) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301647 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Neural basis of psychosis-related behaviour in the infection model of schizophrenia
Meyer, U., & Feldon, J. (2009) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.12.022 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Crowley, T., Cryan, J. F., Downer, E. J., & O’Leary, O. F. (2016) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2016.02.001 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Tseng, K. Y., Lewis, B. L., Hashimoto, T., Sesack, S. R., Kloc, M., Lewis, D. A., & O'Donnell, P. (2008) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4166-08.2008 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Dzyubenko, E., Gottschling, C., & Faissner, A. (2016) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2016/5214961 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Wang, A. Y., Lohmann, K. M., Yang, C. K., Zimmerman, E. I., Pantazopoulos, H., Herring, N., Berretta, S., Heckers, S., & Konradi, C. (2011) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/s00401-011-0881-4 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Immature Dentate Gyrus: An Endophenotype of Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Hagihara, H., Takao, K., Walton, N. M., Matsumoto, M., & Miyakawa, T. (2013) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2013/318596 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Sakai, T., Oshima, A., Nozaki, Y., Ida, I., Haga, C., Akiyama, H., Nakazato, Y., & Mikuni, M. (2008) · Neuropathology · doi:10.1111/j.1440-1789.2007.00867.x · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Abekawa, T., Ito, K., Nakagawa, S., & Koyama, T. (2007) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-007-0729-8 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Neuron density and serotonin receptor binding in prefrontal cortex in suicide
Underwood, M. D., Kassir, S. A., Bakalian, M. J., Galfalvy, H., Mann, J. J., & Arango, V. (2012) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1017/s1461145711000691 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Carlson, G. C., Talbot, K., Halene, T. B., Gandal, M. J., Kazi, H. A., Schlosser, L., Phung, Q. H., Gur, R. E., Arnold, S. E., & Siegel, S. J. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1109625108 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Cabungcal, J.-H., Nicolas, D., Kraftsik, R., Cuénod, M., Do, K. Q., & Hornung, J.-P. (2006) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2006.01.003 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Li, Y.-C., Kellendonk, C., Simpson, E. H., Kandel, E. R., & Gao, W.-J. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1109718108 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Neurons expressing calcium-binding proteins in the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia
Tooney, P. A., & Chahl, L. A. (2004) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2003.10.004 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Jenkins, T. A., Harte, M. K., Stenson, G., & Reynolds, G. P. (2009) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2009.07.014 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Transcriptomic evidence for immaturity of the prefrontal cortex in patients with schizophrenia
Hagihara, H., Ohira, K., Takao, K., & Miyakawa, T. (2014) · Molecular Brain · doi:10.1186/1756-6606-7-41 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Abnormal interneuron development in disrupted-in-schizophrenia-1 L100P mutant mice
Lee, F. H., Zai, C. C., Cordes, S. P., Roder, J. C., & Wong, A. H. (2013) · Molecular Brain · doi:10.1186/1756-6606-6-20 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Region-specific alteration of GABAergic markers in the brain of heterozygous reeler mice
Nullmeier, S., Panther, P., Dobrowolny, H., Frotscher, M., Zhao, S., Schwegler, H., & Wolf, R. (2011) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07563.x · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Juvenile stress induces behavioral change and affects perineuronal net formation in juvenile mice
Ueno, H., Suemitsu, S., Murakami, S., Kitamura, N., Wani, K., Matsumoto, Y., Okamoto, M., Aoki, S., & Ishihara, T. (2018) · BMC Neuroscience · doi:10.1186/s12868-018-0442-z · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Bristow, G. C., Thomson, D. M., Openshaw, R. L., Mitchell, E. J., Pratt, J. A., Dawson, N., & Morris, B. J. (2020) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2020.107536 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Fachim, H. A., Srisawat, U., Dalton, C. F., Harte, M. K., Marsh, S., Neill, J. C., & Reynolds, G. P. (2016) · Epigenomics · doi:10.2217/epi-2016-0050 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- BEASLEY, C., & REYNOLDS, G.
- Affiliations
- University of Sheffield (GB)
- Corresponding author
- REYNOLDS, G
- Venue
- Schizophrenia Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1997-04-11
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 349-355
- ISSN
- 0920-9964 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2030538289
- Cited by
- 426
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 7.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Schizophrenia Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust
- Medical Research Council
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- parvalbumin, GABAergic interneurons
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Female, gamma-Aminobutyric Acid, Humans, Immunohistochemistry, Interneurons, Male, Middle Aged, Neurons, Parvalbumins, Schizophrenia, Matched-Pair Analysis, Prefrontal Cortex
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
