Decolonizing Research on the Carceral in Canadian Political Science

May combine two claims.

Some positivist social scientists advance a statistical rhetoric of Black criminality, and this articulation of the problem justifies carceral development and its racial disparity.

“For example, some positivist social scientists advance a statistical rhetoric of Black criminality, and this articulation of the problem justifies carceral development and its racial disparity (Cohen and Luttig, 2020;Murakawa, 2019).”

• cites Cohen and Luttig, 2020 sourceCould not verify

  The Abstract and Political Knowledge and the Carceral State section discuss racialized experiences of policing and knowledge of carceral violence, not social scientists’ statistical portrayals of Black criminality. Searches for “positivist,” “criminality,” and a justification for carceral development found no passage addressing the attributed claim. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.73)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Murakawa, 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Institutions have developed intellectual disciplines rationalizing and promoting theories of crime and responses to it.

“American political scientist Michael Coyle (Coyle and Schept, 2017;Coyle, 2018) identifies how institutions have developed intellectual disciplines rationalizing and promoting theories of crime and responses to it.”

• cites Coyle and Schept, 2017 sourceSupported
• cites Coyle, 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

There are many carceral institutions that have removed, isolated, assimilated and confined Indigenous peoples over time, with legacies continuing today.

“There are many carceral institutions that have removed, isolated, assimilated and confined Indigenous peoples over time, with legacies continuing today.”

• cites Mussell, 2020 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Canada's criminal justice system works against Indigenous peoples at every level, including police checks and arrests, bail practices and pretrial detention, racialized and gendered violence by police, sentencing, jury selections and higher rates of imprisonment, security classification and penal segregation.

“Along with this postwar shift, Canada's criminal justice system works against Indigenous peoples at every level, including police checks and arrests (Card et al., 2021;David and Mitchell, 2021), bail practices and pretrial detention (Myers and Ireland, 2021), racialized and gendered violence by police (Palmater, 2016), sentencing (Alberton et al., 2021), jury selections (Hogg, 2021) and higher”

• cites Card et al., 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Palmater, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hogg, 2021Supported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

There is no single definition of the carceral state, but it is generally connected to surveillance, criminalization, control, and punishment through criminal justice institutions.

“There is no single definition of the carceral state, but it is generally connected to surveillance, criminalization, control, and punishment through criminal justice institutions (Beckett and Murakawa, 2012;Burch 2013;Lerman and Weaver, 2014;Soss and Weaver, 2017;Weaver and Lerman, 2010).”

• cites Beckett and Murakawa, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Soss and Weaver, 2017 sourcePartly supported

  In “Governance, Citizenship, and the American Polity” (page unavailable), the paper connects the carceral state to policing, criminalization, punitive institutions, and social control. “Transforming Race, Class, and Citizenship” (page unavailable) also describes surveillance as a policing practice. The copy does not say that there is no single definition of the carceral state, so that part of the attributed claim is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Reforms to the Indian Act deputized and judicialized Indian agents, providing them ex officio powers as justices of the peace.

“Reforms to the Indian Act deputized and judicialized Indian agents, providing them ex officio powers as justices of the peace (Jackson, 1989).”

• cites Jackson, 1989Supported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

It is only since the 1990s that there has been growing attention paid by political scientists to Indigenous peoples and politics.

“In an address to a recent Canadian Political Science conference, Yasmeen Abu Laban (2017) notes that it is only since the 1990s that there has been growing attention paid by political scientists to Indigenous peoples and politics.”

• cites Abu Laban, 2017 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the early 1980s, child welfare agencies operated by Indigenous communities began to emerge but were impeded by strict federal funding controls and a moratorium on recognizing new agencies.

“In the early 1980s, child welfare agencies operated by Indigenous communities began to emerge but were impeded by strict federal funding controls and a moratorium on recognizing new agencies (Sinha and Kozlowski, 2013).”

• cites Sinha and Kozlowski, 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Historical Context section (page not provided) reports that First Nations agencies grew from 4 in 1981 to 30 in 1986, after which a federal moratorium on recognizing new agencies was imposed. It says strict funding controls were introduced in 1991, when the moratorium was lifted. The claim captures the agencies’ growth and the existence of both restrictions, but incorrectly places the restrictions as impediments to their early-1980s emergence. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In comparison to other critical literatures, a focus on carceral abolition is not currently emphasized in this political science work.

“In comparison to other critical literatures, a focus on carceral abolition is not currently emphasized in this political science work.”

May combine two claims.

Research on carceral institutions in Canada by settler political scientists is still emerging and does not centre on relationality and abolition.

“Research on carceral institutions in Canada by settler political scientists is still emerging and does not centre on relationality and abolition.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Scholars under the umbrella of political science have rarely devoted attention to carceral topics.

“Despite having much to offer in terms of analyzing power, political decision making, socialization, representation, participation, and policy change, scholars under the umbrella of political science have rarely devoted attention to carceral topics.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In 2023 there still is little work on criminal justice topics by Canadian political scientists, and even less on the carceral state.

“Yet in 2023 there still is little work on criminal justice topics by Canadian political scientists, and even less on the carceral state.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In the written accounts of Indigenous peoples with lived expertise, the authors speak about the ongoing violence of colonialism they face and the complex and often harmful experiences they had in carceral institutions.

“In these accounts, the authors speak about the ongoing violence of colonialism they face and the complex and often harmful experiences they had in carceral institutions.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The experiences and testimony of Indigenous peoples who have been imprisoned are a valid and authoritative source of knowledge about the carceral state.

May combine two claims.

The themes of the literature on carceral institutions in Canada by settler political scientists focus on the judiciary; political ideology; criminalization; and colonial violence, genocide and residential schools.

“The themes of this literature focus on the judiciary (Riddell and Baker, 2018;Small and Puddister, 2020); 10 political ideology (Kelly and Puddister, 2017;Gordon, 2021); 11 criminalization (Hindmarch et al., 2018;Hindmarch and Orsini, 2021;Kilty andOrsini, 2019a, 2019b;Kilty et al., 2017;Johnson and Porth, 2023); 12 and colonial violence, genocide and residential schools (MacDonald, 2020;MacDonald”

• cites Riddell and Baker, 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kelly and Puddister, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites MacDonald, 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Some scholars and centres partner with correctional institutions and call for reforms to allow for the continuation of carceral systems, for example through indigenizing prisons.

“Those perpetuating carcerality include scholars and centres who partner with correctional institutions and call for reforms to allow for the continuation of carceral systemsfor example, through indigenizing prisons.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

This wisdom from Indigenous peoples with lived expertise is present, yet it is not closely engaged with by many political scientists.

“This wisdom is present, yet it is not closely engaged with by many political scientists.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The experiences and testimony of Indigenous peoples who have been imprisoned are a valid and authoritative source of knowledge about the carceral state.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Scholars in other disciplines such as criminology, sociology and psychology have devoted more attention to carceral topics than political scientists.

“Scholars in other disciplines such as criminology, sociology and psychology have devoted more attention, in ways that can legitimate or trouble the status quo of carceral institutions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

These institutions are not widely identified as part of the carceral state in Canada by media, government, or practitioners.

“These institutions are not widely identified as part of the carceral state in Canada by media, government, or practitioners.”

May combine two claims.

There is activist, grassroots and some scholarly acknowledgment that Canada is a carceral state and that institutions such as policing, child removal, and imprisonment are components.

“There is activist (Reece, 2020;Gouldhawke, 2020), grassroots (Abolition Coalition, n.d.) and some scholarly (Bergen and Abji, 2019) acknowledgment that Canada is a carceral state and that institutions such as policing, child removal, and imprisonment are components.”

• cites Reece, 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Bergen and Abji, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The United States is the source of a larger body of research on the carceral by political scientists.

“The United States is the source of a larger body of research on the carceral by political scientists.”

May combine two claims.

Scholarship on the Canadian carceral state outside of political science speaks to abolition and relationality as integral components of research on carceral topics but does not have a political science lens with a specific focus on politics and governance.

“This work speaks to abolition and relationality as integral components of research on carceral topics but does not have a political science lens with a specific focus on politics and governance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Canadian political science has been slow in identifying and troubling carceral institutions as key places of power and instead focuses on other topics as more worthy of attention.

“In other words, Canadian political science has been slow in identifying and troubling carceral institutions as key places of power and instead focuses on other topics as more worthy of attention.”

May combine two claims.

While some political scientists work on carceral topics and logics, Canadian political science as a whole has not looked at its role in these topics.

“While there are some political scientists whose work looks at carceral topics (especially Indigenous scholars) and logics (particularly in carceral politics subdisciplines, such as in American political science), Canadian political science as a whole has not looked at its role in these topics.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The discipline is diverse, yet scholars who do seek to counter carcerality are a small component of the discipline.

“The discipline is diverse, yet scholars who do seek to counter carcerality are a small component of the discipline.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

With only one article on the Canadian carceral state from the perspective of a political scientist, there is opportunity for more work in this context.

“With only one article on the Canadian carceral state from the perspective of a political scientist (Nichols, 2014), there is opportunity for more work in this context.”

• cites Nichols, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Important work is being done by Canadian political scientists-in particular, Indigenous political scientists-that seeks to decolonize the discipline and Canadian structures and institutions.

“Important work is being done by Canadian political scientists-in particular, Indigenous political scientists -that seeks to decolonize the discipline and Canadian structures and institutions.”

May combine two claims.

There is little work available, and the discipline is largely silent.

“Indeed, there is little work available, and the discipline is largely silent.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Work by Indigenous peoples with lived expertise speaks to racism, colonialism, sexism, and other systems of oppression, which are intertwined with carceral institutions, and the importance of centring lived experiences.

“Such work speaks to racism, colonialism, sexism, and other systems of oppression, which are intertwined with carceral institutions, and the importance of centring lived experiences.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The experiences and testimony of Indigenous peoples who have been imprisoned are a valid and authoritative source of knowledge about the carceral state.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Robert Nichols (2014) explores the colonial nature of imprisonment in Canada and situates his work within the critical prison studies literature.

“A scholar based at the University of Minnesota, Nichols (2014) explores the colonial nature of imprisonment in Canada and situates his work within the critical prison studies literature.”

• cites Nichols, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

All of the issues of violence experienced by Indigenous peoples in residential schools, by police, through hyper-imprisonment and child removal, in hospitals, and in the contemporary education system are interlinked and outcomes of the carceral state.

“All of these issues are interlinked and outcomes of the carceral state-defined as the policing, monitoring, surveillance, criminalization and imprisonment of people, especially Indigenous and other racialized peoples.”

• cites Gottschalk, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Chartrand and Rougier, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Canadian political science is well situated to build literature on the Canadian carceral state akin to the American political science subfield on the American carceral state.

“Canadian political science is well situated to build literature on the Canadian carceral state akin to the American political science subfield on the American carceral state.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Imprisonment takes on a colonial function through its particular use of the state.

“He claims that imprisonment takes on a colonial function through its particular use of the state.”

• cites Nichols, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Canadian political science is not incorporating an intersectional anti-oppression lens, despite efforts to tackle questions of diversity.

“Nath and colleagues point out that Canadian political science is not incorporating an intersectional anti-oppression lens, despite efforts to tackle questions of diversity.”

• cites Nath et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

American political science, while featuring a carceral politics subdiscipline, is situated in and speaks to a different political context.

“American political science, while featuring a carceral politics subdiscipline, is situated in and speaks to a different political context.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Canadian political science is well positioned to do work on the Canadian carceral state due to its commitment to decolonizing political research on the Canadian context, domestic political scientists working on topics of colonialism in Canada, and closeness to Canadian carceral institutions.

“Canadian political science is well positioned to do this work due to its commitment to decolonizing political research on the Canadian context, domestic political scientists working on topics of colonialism in Canada, and closeness (geographic and otherwise) to Canadian carceral institutions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

A focus on carcerality can ultimately strengthen Canadian political science by tackling important questions that occasionally dominate media, public concern and political discussion but about which the discipline is mainly silent.

“I similarly argue that a focus on carcerality can ultimately strengthen Canadian political science by tackling important questions that occasionally dominate media, public concern and political discussion but about which the discipline is mainly silent.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Without learning from critical literatures, Canadian political scientists may reproduce carceral logic in their research, service and teaching practices.

“Without learning from these critical literatures, Canadian political scientists may reproduce carceral logic in their research, service and teaching practices.”

May combine two claims.

Carceral logics operate throughout multiple areas of the state, which are resistant and adaptive and which continue through successive reforms.

“Specifically, I see carceral logics operating throughout multiple areas of the state, which are resistant and adaptive and which continue through successive reforms.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

These locations are part of a pipeline of institutional contact that can involve confinement in prisons.

“These locations are part of a pipeline of institutional contact that can involve confinement in prisons.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Formal segregation and assimilation legislation were replaced with integration policies and an expansion of general social welfare programs to Indigenous peoples.

“Formal segregation and assimilation legislation were replaced with integration policies and an expansion of general social welfare programs to Indigenous peoples (Chartrand, 2019).”

• cites Chartrand, 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Abolitionists are ultimately concerned with attaining social change and freedom from the inequalities and oppressions that drive hyper-imprisonment.

“Abolitionists are ultimately concerned with attaining social change and freedom from the inequalities and oppressions that drive hyper-imprisonment.”

May combine two claims.

Since the early settlement (1763-1867) and nation-building (1867-1910) periods, carceral institutions of policing, courts and prisons have been used to suppress Indigenous political action and consolidate the nation.

“Since the early settlement (1763-1867) and nation-building (1867-1910) periods, carceral institutions of policing, courts and prisons have been used to suppress Indigenous political action and consolidate the nation (Chartrand, 2019).”

• cites Chartrand, 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Carcerality-techniques of power and control associated with prisons-operates throughout society and culture, and it is necessary to look beyond carceral sites.

“Carcerality-techniques of power and control associated with prisons-operate throughout society and culture, and it is necessary to look beyond these sites (Foucault, 1977).”

• cites Foucault, 1977Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Throughout society there is constant threat of criminalization and confinement as responses to social issues, in particular for people facing multiple points of oppression, including colonialism, racism, sexism, ableism, xenophobia, and more.

“Throughout society there is constant threat of criminalization and confinement as responses to social issues, in particular for people facing multiple points of oppression, including colonialism, racism, sexism, ableism, xenophobia, and more.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The role of institutions shifted with the postwar era, with a new wave of reforms in settling the nation.

“The role of institutions shifted with the postwar era, with a new wave of reforms in settling the nation.”

• cites Chartrand, 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Penal abolition is an approach, a perspective and a strategy for decarceration.

“Sociologist Vincenzo Ruggiero (2011) argues that penal abolition is an approach, a perspective and a strategy for decarceration.”

• cites Ruggiero, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In recent years, American political scientists have introduced new questions, focusing on how carceral institutions shape individuals' relationship with the state.

“In recent years, American political scientists have introduced new questions, focusing on how carceral institutions shape individuals' relationship with the state (Harris et al., 2020), work that Canadian political science can better contribute to regarding the Canadian case study.”

• cites Harris et al., 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Social sciences have a preoccupation with prison reform-efforts to mitigate the harms of carcerality that ultimately extend the life and the scope of the carceral state.

“American political scientist Andrew Dilts (2021) speaks to the preoccupation of social sciences with prison reform-efforts to mitigate the harms of carcerality that ultimately extend the life and the scope of the carceral state (also see Mathiesen [2015] on different types of reform).”

• cites Dilts, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the 1950s and 1960s, numbers of Indigenous peoples in the prison and the child welfare systems began to rise to the stark numbers today.

“In the 1950s and 1960s, numbers of Indigenous peoples in the prison and the child welfare systems began to rise to the stark numbers today (Chartrand, 2019; Standing Committee on the Status of Women, 2017).”

• cites Chartrand, 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Standing Committee on the Status of Women, 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Other branches of the carceral state include education, health services, state guardianship, social assistance, housing, migration and citizenship.

“Other branches of the carceral state include education, health services, state guardianship, social assistance, housing, migration and citizenship.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The guiding logic of a non-carceral society is penal abolition, which rejects criminal justice logic and practice.

“Critical prison scholars claim that the guiding logic of a non-carceral society is penal abolition, which rejects criminal justice logic and practice (Berger et al., 2017;Coyle, 2014Coyle, , 2018;;Davis, 2003;Davis and Rodriguez, 2000).”

• cites Berger et al., 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Davis, 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Abolitionists call for change, including reinvestment to improve community welfare; dismantling systemic inequalities, including racism and colonization; decriminalization; and community accountability and restorative justice programs.

“They call for change, including reinvestment to improve community welfare; dismantling systemic inequalities, including racism and colonization; decriminalization; and community accountability and restorative justice programs (Benson, 2020).”

• cites Benson, 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

These situations render people more visible to surveillance and policing and more likely to be deemed delinquent or as presenting risk.

“These situations render people more visible to surveillance and policing and more likely to be deemed delinquent or as presenting risk.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Members of society-including academics-participate in, witness, support and/or resist carceral systems.

“Members of society-including academics-participate in, witness, support and/or resist carceral systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Critical prison scholars offer understandings about carceral logic-a mindset that equates punishment with justice-and the role of academia in creating and upholding it.

“Critical prison scholars, including some political scientists in the American context, offer understandings about carceral logic-a mindset that equates punishment with justice-and the role of academia in creating and upholding it.”

May combine two claims.

Government attention has not solved these issues, and legacies continue.

“Government attention (for example, Department of Justice Canada, 2020; Government of Canada, 2021) has not solved these issues, and legacies continue.”

• cites Department of Justice Canada, 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Government of Canada, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

American political science work on the carceral state does not speak to the Canadian context, nor does it speak closely to the colonial dimensions of the carceral state.

“Yet this work does not speak to the Canadian context, nor does it speak closely to the colonial dimensions of the carceral state.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Even the American carceral state is identified as overlooked in American political science.

“That said, the even the American carceral state is identified as overlooked in American political science (Gottschalk, 2008).”

• cites Gottschalk, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Under the premise of safety, the carceral state both produces and reinforces inequities.

“Under the premise of safety, the carceral state both produces and reinforces inequities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some Indigenous scholars, including Lumsden, identify the need to counter carceral institutions through decarceration or abolition.

“Some Indigenous scholars, including Lumsden, identify the need to counter carceral institutions through decarceration or abolition.”

• cites Lumsden, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Indigenous peoples who are imprisoned or formerly imprisoned are the experts on their lives and have opinions on how to improve them.

“Indigenous peoples who are imprisoned or formerly imprisoned are the experts on their lives and have opinions on how to improve them.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Incarceration continues to be effective against American Indians as a tool of colonization because it accomplishes many of the desires of the settler state.

“In the words of Hupa gender studies scholar Stephanie Lumsden (2016: 33): Incarceration continues to be effective against American Indians as a tool of colonization because it accomplishes many of the desires of the settler state.”

• cites Lumsden, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

There is potential for future work by Canadian political scientists to legitimate carceral institutions through partnership with these institutions, as it can be difficult to gain access to data without doing so.

“There is also the potential for future work by Canadian political scientists to legitimate carceral institutions through partnership with these institutions, as it can be difficult to gain access to data without doing so.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

These epistemological practices are rooted in colonialism and work to exclude Indigenous worldviews and philosophies.

“Kuokkanen (2007) highlights how these epistemological practices are rooted in colonialism and work to exclude Indigenous worldviews and philosophies.”

• cites Kuokkanen, 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In 2018/2019, Indigenous youth represented 43 per cent of youth admissions to custody while comprising 8.8 per cent of the youth population in Canada.

“In 2018/2019, Indigenous youth represented 43 per cent of youth admissions to custody while comprising 8.8 per cent of the youth population in Canada (Malakieh, 2020).”

• cites Malakieh, 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Indigenous participants reported the lowest level of confidence in the police, with only 27 per cent saying they had a great deal of confidence in the police.

“Statistics Canada data show that Indigenous peoples were more likely (44 per cent) than non-Indigenous people (34 per cent) to report contact with police in the previous year, and Indigenous participants reported the lowest level of confidence in the police, with only 27 per cent saying they had a great deal of confidence in the police (Ibrahim, 2020).17”

• cites Ibrahim, 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Section 81 provides the Correctional Service of Canada capacity to enter into agreement with Indigenous communities for the custody of prisoners otherwise held in prison.

“Section 81 provides the Correctional Service of Canada capacity to enter into agreement with Indigenous communities for the custody of prisoners otherwise held in prison; section 84 allows prisoners applying for parole to be released into or supervised by an Indigenous community (OCI, 2012).”

• cites OCI, 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Settlers can be co-protagonists in decolonization.

“Settlers can be co-protagonists in decolonization (Elliot, 2018) but should build awareness and take action to counter the use of colonial power against Indigenous peoples (Alfred, 2009).”

• cites Elliot, 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Indigenous boys comprised 47 per cent of boys in custody, and Indigenous girls accounted for 60 per cent of girls in custody.

“Indigenous boys comprised 47 per cent of boys in custody, and Indigenous girls accounted for 60 per cent of girls in custody.”

• cites Malakieh, 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kiera Ladner ties this shift to media attention given to protests such as the 1990 resistance at Oka/Kanehsatà:ke.

“Cree political scientist Kiera Ladner (2017) ties this shift to media attention given to protests such as the 1990 resistance at Oka/Kanehsatà:ke.”

• cites Ladner, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Legitimacy builds or maintains support for the social order, even when state violence and contradictions are visible.

“Legitimacy builds or maintains support for the social order, even when state violence and contradictions are visible.”

• cites Alfred, 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Political scientists have largely ignored Indigenous political traditions and have applied a Western-Eurocentric tradition to Indigenous politics.

“Ladner explains that political scientists have largely ignored Indigenous political traditions and have applied a Western-Eurocentric tradition to Indigenous politics.”

• cites Ladner, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Police apprehended children to force them to attend residential school, echoing the continued use of police to remove children from families.

“Police apprehended children to force them to attend residential school, which echoed the continued use of police to remove children from families (Fournier and Crey, 1997).”

• cites Fournier and Crey, 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

These solutions are noncarceral.

“These solutions are noncarceral.”

May combine two claims.

Over the last 10 years, imprisonment of Indigenous adults increased by 43.4 per cent, while imprisonment of non-Indigenous adults declined by 13.7 per cent.

“Over the last 10 years, imprisonment of Indigenous adults has increased by 43.4 per cent, while imprisonment of non-Indigenous adults has declined by 13.7 per cent (OCI, 2020).15”

• cites OCI, 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

More than half of children under age 15 under state guardianship in Canada are Indigenous (14,970 children), while representing 7.7 per cent of the total child population.

“More than half of children under age 15 under state guardianship in Canada are Indigenous (14,970 children), while representing 7.7 per cent of the total child population (Statistics Canada, 2016).”

• cites Statistics Canada, 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sections 81 and 84 of the Corrections and Conditional Release Act include special provisions intended to ameliorate overrepresentation of Indigenous peoples in prison.

“Beardy urges the improved use of sections 81 and 84 of the Corrections and Conditional Release Act, which includes special provisions intended to ameliorate overrepresentation of Indigenous peoples in prison.”

• cites OCI, 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many Indigenous children were placed in non-Indigenous homes as part of the Sixties Scoop.

“Many children were placed in non-Indigenous homes as part of the Sixties Scoop (Johnston, 1983;TRC, 2015).”

• cites Johnston, 1983Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites TRC, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

By displacing Indigenous jurisprudence and imposing state punishment on Native people, incarceration legitimizes settler law.

“By displacing Indigenous jurisprudence and imposing state punishment on Native people, incarceration legitimizes settler law.”

• cites Lumsden, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Silence can translate into a lack of solidarity with those who are under threat.

“Silence can also translate into a lack of solidarity with those who are under threat, when Canadian political science could instead be challenging the legitimacy of the hyper-imprisonment and removal of Indigenous peoples in Canada.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

This disbelief extends to the legitimacy of state-centred and institutional responses to crime, which is viewed as contributing to personal, family and community disintegration rather than safety and security.

“This disbelief extends to the legitimacy of state-centred and institutional responses to crime, which is viewed as contributing to personal, family and community disintegration rather than safety and security.”

• cites Baldry et al., 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Deep collaborative work can counter carcerality, and is opposite to spectatorship.

“Deep collaborative work can counter carcerality, and is opposite to spectatorship.”

May combine two claims.

The discipline of political science has been a highly gendered and white discipline of study and rooted in a colonial context.

“The discipline of political science has been a highly gendered and white discipline of study and rooted in a colonial context (Nath et al., 2018).”

• cites Nath et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Krista Benson centres Sarah Deer's listening politics, extolling the importance of listening to the narratives of imprisoned Indigenous women on decolonial abolitionist practice.

“Gender studies scholar Krista Benson (2020) centres Muscogee legal scholar Sarah Deer's (2015) listening politics, extolling the importance of listening to the narratives of imprisoned Indigenous women on decolonial abolitionist practice.”

• cites Benson, 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Deer, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Spectatorship not only is about looking at something but also involves authoring and authorizing penal practices.

“She suggests that spectatorship not only is about looking at something but also involves authoring and authorizing penal practices.”

• cites Brown, 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Such partnerships can also preclude the ability to form close partnerships with criminalized peoples, many of whom are unwilling to work in such arrangements.

“Such partnerships can also preclude the ability to form close partnerships with criminalized peoples, many of whom are unwilling to work in such arrangements.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gottschalk calls for experts to view engaging the scholarly, public and political arenas in discussions about the future of the carceral state and make this a leading political and public policy area, as part of their professional responsibility.

“Gottschalk (2007Gottschalk ( , 2015) ) calls for experts to view engaging the scholarly, public and political arenas in discussions about the future of the carceral state and make this a leading political and public policy area, as part of their professional responsibility.”

• cites Gottschalk, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Gottschalk, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Luana Ross asserts that the criminalization of Indigenous peoples and subsequent imprisonment is directly tied to the loss of Indigenous sovereignty: penal logics limit these important political and social futures.

“Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes sociologist Luana Ross (1998) asserts that the criminalization of Indigenous peoples and subsequent imprisonment is directly tied to the loss of Indigenous sovereignty: penal logics limit these important political and social futures.”

• cites Ross, 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Dobchuck-Land notes these logics convey that Indigenous peoples need either state containment or assistance, and they limit the public imagination about Indigenous control over Indigenous lands and lives.

“Dobchuck-Land (2017) notes these logics convey that Indigenous peoples need either state containment or assistance, and they limit the public imagination about Indigenous control over Indigenous lands and lives.”

• cites Dobchuck-Land, 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Michelle Brown uses the notion of penal spectator to refer to the individual and institutional means of looking at other people's pain from a distance and perpetuating the ideologies and practices of punishment in the process.

“Michelle Brown (2009) uses the notion of penal spectator to refer to the individual and institutional means of looking at other people's pain from a distance and perpetuating the ideologies and practices of punishment in the process.”

• cites Brown, 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

A relational logic rejects carceral operations that disrupt, sever and modify relationality-interconnections with people and all forms of life that are fundamental to many Indigenous peoples.

“A relational logic rejects carceral operations that disrupt, sever and modify relationality-interconnections with people and all forms of life that are fundamental to many Indigenous peoples.”

• cites Chartrand and Rougier, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The benefits of decolonizing carceral research from a political science lens include offering a deeper focus on the state, on institutions, and on political behaviour, policies and power.

“The benefits of decolonizing carceral research from a political science lens include offering a deeper focus on the state, on institutions, and on political behaviour, policies and power.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Working on the carceral using a decolonial and abolitionist lens can be co-optive, drawing on the knowledge, language and concepts of experts, particularly Indigenous and racialized experts, without advancing the core intent of that work.

“Working on the carceral using a decolonial and abolitionist lens can be co-optive, drawing on the knowledge, language and concepts of experts, particularly Indigenous and racialized experts, without advancing the core intent of that work.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Those embracing this disbelief call for dismantling or shifting resources away from carceral institutions and adopting different approaches to justice.

“Further, those embracing this disbelief call for dismantling or shifting resources away from carceral institutions and adopting different approaches to justice.”

• cites Baldry et al., 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

From this perspective, the goal of justice is not personal rehabilitation but reconnecting relationships.

“From this perspective, the goal of justice is not personal rehabilitation but reconnecting relationships.”

• cites Craft, 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

In such cases, drawing on the language of abolition can be especially co-optive.

“And in such cases, drawing on the language of abolition can be especially co-optive.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A decolonial approach to justice encompasses a relational logic rather than a colonial, oppositional logic.

“Chartrand and imprisoned Abenaki artist Niko Rougier (2021) explain that a decolonial approach to justice encompasses a relational logic rather than a colonial, oppositional logic.”

• cites Chartrand and Rougier, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Laurel Mei-Singh identifies the value of accompaniment, bringing together different forms of expertise to develop life-affirming systems and replace carceral partitions that harm relationships among all forms of life.

“In doing relational work, geography scholar Laurel Mei-Singh (2021) identifies the value of accompaniment, bringing together different forms of expertise to develop life-affirming systems and replace carceral partitions that harm relationships among all forms of life.”

• cites Mei-Singh, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.