A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality.

Dweck, Carol S.; Leggett, Ellen L.

doi:10.1037/0033-295x.95.2.256

Cited by 9,745Education, Achievement, and GiftednessPsychological Testing and AssessmentBehavioral Health and Interventions

A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality.

Dweck, Carol S., Leggett, Ellen L.·1988·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.95.2.256

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Abstract

Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals ' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then exam-ine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understand-ing of motivational and personality processes. The task for investigators of motivation and personality is to identify major patterns of behavior and link them to underlying psychological processes. In this article we (a) describe a re-search-based model that accounts for major patterns of behav-ior, (b) examine the generality of this model—its utility for un-derstanding domains beyond the ones in which it was originally

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Growth mindset is associated with mastery goals, while a fixed mindset is associated with performance goals.
“Dweck and Leggett (1988) observed that growth mindset is associated with mastery goals, while a fixed mindset is associated with performance goals”
From Impacts of Standards-Based Grading on Students’ Mindset and Test Anxiety (2022) · cites this paper as Dweck and Leggett (1988)
Goal orientation theories of motivation propose that individuals may be either seeking 'mastery' of a topic for self-improvement, or demonstration of enhanced 'performance' of abilities relative to others.
“This is reminiscent of goal orientation theories of motivation, where individuals may be either seeking ‘mastery’ of a topic for self-improvement, or demonstration of enhanced ‘performance’ of abilities relative to others [21,22].”
From Perceptions of scientific research literature and strategies for reading papers depend on academic career stage (2017) · cites this paper as [21]
Motivational factors and mindfulness promote self-regulation of learning and self-regulation of academic stress.
“motivational factors and mindfulness promote self-regulation of learning [31, 52] and self-regulation of academic stress [24, 40, 53].”
From Benefits of mindfulness in academic settings: trait mindfulness has incremental validity over motivational factors in predicting academic affect, cognition, and behavior (2022) · cites this paper as [40]
Achievement motivation factors are trait-like individual difference variables that are relatively general and stable across achievement situations.
“Achievement motivation factors have been conceptualized as a trait-like individual difference variable that is relatively general and stable across achievement situations and have been hypothesized to influence affect, cognition, and behavior in various achievement situations [40, 41].”
From Benefits of mindfulness in academic settings: trait mindfulness has incremental validity over motivational factors in predicting academic affect, cognition, and behavior (2022) · cites this paper as [40]
The incremental theory of intelligence predicts adaptive affect, cognition, and behavior, whereas the entity theory predicts maladaptive affect, cognition, and behavior.
“Dweck’s theory hypothesizes that the incremental theory of intelligence predicts adaptive affect, cognition, and behavior, whereas the entity theory predicts maladaptive affect, cognition, and behavior.”
From Benefits of mindfulness in academic settings: trait mindfulness has incremental validity over motivational factors in predicting academic affect, cognition, and behavior (2022) · cites this paper as [40]

An emphasis on performance goals is linked to vulnerability to a maladaptive helpless response to achievement setbacks.
“Furthermore, an emphasis on performance goals has been linked to vulnerability to a maladaptive helpless response to achievement setbacks (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988)”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
Learning goals have been associated with high achievement motivation and continued displays of persistence, enjoyment, and good performance in the face of setbacks.
“In other words, they may orient toward learning goals, which have been associated with high achievement motivation (cf. Nicholls, 1984) as well as continued displays of persistence, enjoyment, and good performance in the face of setbacks (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
Ability attributions for failure are linked to helpless responding in the face of failure.
“In particular, Dweck and her associates have linked ability attributions for failure to helpless responding in the face of failure (Diener & Dweck, 1978, 1980; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
Learning goals, effort attributions, and mastery responses have been linked to an incremental view of intelligence as subject to improvement.
“whereas learning goals, effort attributions, and mastery responses have been linked to an incremental view of intelligence as subject to improvement (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Mueller & Dweck, 1997).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
The achievement goal measure was designed to contain a choice of tasks that embodied different goals and has been used successfully in previous studies.
“The measure was designed to contain a choice of tasks that embodied different goals and has been used successfully in previous studies (see Dweck & Leggett, 1988).”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
The pattern of performance goals, ability attributions, and helpless postfailure responses has been associated with an entity view of intelligence as a fixed trait.
“Indeed, the pattern of performance goals, ability attributions, and helpless postfailure responses described above has been associated with an entity view of intelligence as a fixed trait”
From Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. (1998) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
Dominant motivational models such as achievement goal theory and self-efficacy theory have adopted a sociocognitive perspective that highlights the importance of cognitive and social factors, as well as their complex interplay in understanding motivated behaviours.
“Dominant motivational models such as achievement goal theory and self-efficacy theory have adopted a sociocognitive perspective that highlights the importance of cognitive and social factors, as well as their complex interplay in understanding motivated behaviours (e.g.Covington, 2000;Dweck & Leggett, 1988;Schunk, 1991).”
From Teachers’ perceptions of declining participation in school music (2011) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988
Research on responses to feedback suggests that additional internal factors might play a role, including self-efficacy, goal orientation, mindset, and task motivation.
“Research on responses to feedback suggests that additional internal factors might play a role, including self-efficacy, which refers to students' beliefs about their capabilities to achieve a specific goal or task (Bandura, 1986); goal orientation, which refers to students' purpose for engaging in a task or behavior (Dweck and Leggett, 1988;Elliot, 2005;Mega et al., 2014); mindset, which are one's”
From The Next Black Box of Formative Assessment: A Model of the Internal Mechanisms of Feedback Processing (2022) · cites this paper as Dweck and Leggett, 1988
People who view abilities as fixed tend to be more concerned with proving ability and perceive errors or negative feedback as a threat to the self.
“In general, people who believe that (motor) abilities are relatively fixed (so-called entity theorists), tend to be more concerned with proving their ability, and they perceive errors or negative feedback as a threat to the self, because they reveal a limited capacity or lack of ability.”
From Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning (2016) · cites this paper as Dweck & Leggett, 1988

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Authors: Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L.
ORCID: Dweck, Carol S.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1988-04
Volume: 95
Issue: 2
Pages: 256-273
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.95.2.256
OpenAlex: W2167884222
Semantic Scholar: bea6bdcd90212431bc464f638431b39ff6427855
Cited by: 9,745
References: 87
Citations by year: 2026: 382 · 2025: 462 · 2024: 423 · 2023: 421 · 2022: 477 · 2021: 472 · 2020: 566 · 2019: 435 · 2018: 386 · 2017: 407 · 2016: 417 · 2015: 392 · 2014: 403 · 2013: 361 · 2012: 385
FWCI: 55.10
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Keywords: mastery orientation, learned helplessness, mindset, motivation, personality, goal orientation, adaptive and maladaptive behavior, social cognitive model, cognitive processes, emotional processing, behavioral patterns

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A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality.

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