The science of prevention. A conceptual framework and some directions for a national research program

“With regard to externalizing behaviors, manipulating parenting practices during childhood, before antisocial behaviors become deep-seated, would likely be more productive (Coie et al., 1993).”

“Developmental processes that are altered as a result of a randomized intervention and that confer protection against negative outcomes can be inferred to be true risk factors for those outcomes (Cicchetti & Hinshaw, 2002; Coie et al., 1993; Kraemer et al., 1997).”

“Most contemporary prevention researchers and practitioners view prevention within an ecological framework (e.g., Coie etal., 1993; Kelly, 1986).”

“CTC, which targets adolescent behavior problems such as substance use, school dropout, violence, and teen pregnancy, is a leading model of “community empowerment” based on prevention science (Coie et al., 1993).”

“, school-based prevention curricula) by targeting children and youth, especially those at high risk for developing emotional problems (Coie et al., 1993; Cowen, Hightower, Pedro-Carroll, & Work, 1996; Winett, 1998).”

“Mediation analyses provide a test of the mechanisms that putatively underlie intervention effects (Coie et al., 1993).”

“Moderator analyses investigating the effects of child’s age and gender, SES background, origin of study, publication year, and type of measurement, instrument, and respondent to explain the heterogeneity across studies.”

“Such mediational analyses are important for several reasons (Coie et al., 1993).”

“Relatively little is known about the meanings that surround turning points and the ways in which new life directions arise from turning points (Coie et al., 1993; Masten et al., 1990; Masten et al., 1988; Pellegrini, 1990; Rutter, 1987, 1993, 1999).”

“One illustration of the latter is Weissberg and Greenberg (1998), who contrast two approaches to community prevention research: prevention science and collaborative community action research (Coie et al., 1993; Rappaport, 1990).”

“for prevention (Coie et al., 1993), it is rare in prevention trials to have multiple outcomes measured over any significant length of time.”

“In short, risk factors involve the presence of different types of adverse conditions that increase the likelihood of delinquent and criminal behavior (Coie et al. 1993; van der Geest, Blokland, and Bijleveld 2009).”

“On the other hand, some researchers argue that although some at-risk individuals show positive adjustment at a particular point in time, many falter subsequently (Coie et al., 1993; Kaplan, 1999).”

“As discussed by Coie and colleagues (Coie et al. 1993), protective factors (in this case, character strengths) might serve to directly decrease a problem (i.”

“3 A risk factor is an individual attribute, individual characteristic, situational condition, or environmental context that increases the likelihood of negative behavior (Clayton, 1992; Coie et al., 1993; Masten & Garmezy, 1985; Werner, 1990).”

“They note that prevention programming needs to be developmentally appropriate and target behavioral irregularities at specific developmental stages thatmight be indicative of future substance use [15, 23]; different types of programming are relevant for youth in different age groups.”

“Risk factors contribute to the onset, severity, or duration of a disorder (Coie et al., 1993), and are hypothesized to exist and operate across multiple ecological levels (individual, family, sociocultural).”

“As highlighted in a NIMH report on prevention (Coie et al., 1993), couple distress and destructive relationship conflict are major generic risk factors for many forms of dysfunction and psychopathology, and may have long-lasting consequences for the children (Hahlweg et al., 2009).”

“Finally, as underscored by Coie et al. (1993), we must construct a cohesive and plausible explanation of how our particular mechanism works to lead to change on our outcome.”

“While this method is relatively easy to use, it is now well established that single risk factors alone are poor predictors of subsequent mental health outcomes (Coie et al., 1993; Rutter, 1978, 1979).”

“While conservative benchmarks for good model fit for structural equation models are TLI above .95 and RMSEA below .06 (Hu and Bentler 1999), in cases where global fit indices suggest that latent growth models fail to fully capture heterogeneity in repeated measures data, it may be better to favor more parsimonious mod…”

“Given these considerations, early adolescence is a critical transition point in which a family-centered intervention may provide opportunities to alter developmental trajectories of risk for adolescent problem behavior and school failure (Coie et al. 1993).”

“Providing children with skills to resist antisocial peer influence is also a promising strategy to help reduce risk for adolescent alcohol use (e.g., Botvin, Baker, Dusenbury, Botvin, & Diaz, 1995; Coie et al., 1993; Hawkins et al., 1992).”

“Whether or not it is better to focus services on high-risk individuals or the more general population of youth has been debated (Coie et al., 1993).”

“With these considerations in mind, we incorporated S/L impairment as a potentially powerful covariate and moderator of the impact of CR on adverse outcome [21].”

“This indication of the strength of cumulative risk both confirms work completed by other resilience researchers (Rutter, 1979; Seifer et al., 1992; Garmezy, 1993; Coie et al., 1993; Dishion et al., 1999; Greenberg et al., 2001; Rutter, 2001) and extends our understanding of the topic.”

“Based on the possession or the existence of “risk” characteristics, children were believed to have increased incidence of accidents, delinquency, and drug abuse [114-119].”

“Models of risk and protective mechanism, particularly those emerging from the field of developmental psychopathology (Coie et al. 1993), are thus key guides for the development of effective prevention programs.”

“As discussed by Coie and associates (Coie et al., 1993), studies of family prevention intervention programs can be useful in better understanding family protective processes by varying person-environment causal mechanisms and testing the impact on youth.”

“Prevention science is built on the premise that there are empirically identifiable precursors to public health problems (Coie et al., 1993; Kellam et al., 1999; Muñoz et al., 1996).”

“First, delinquency may “crystalize” oppositional behaviors that reinforce bullying and peer aggression (Coie et al., 1993).”

“Theoretical and empirical advances in understanding resilience have provided a framework for conceptualizing prevention and intervention (Cicchetti, Rappaport, Sandler, & Weissberg, 2000; Coie et al., 1993; Cowen, 2000; Luthar & Cicchetti, 2000; Masten & Garmezy, 1985; Masten & Powell, 2003; Sandler et al., 2003; Weis…”

“Prevention The goal of prevention is to reduce the future appearance of negative outcomes, which is often attempted by reducing relevant risk factors and by strengthening relevant protective factors (Coie et al., 1993).”

“Using such models as a guide to unpacking the black box of intervention effects by testing process mediators is a critical step for identifying the key features of programs that are likely to promote successful replication and sustainability, as well as for supporting program improvement efforts (Coie et al., 1993).”

“Randomized prevention trials could also help to answer the question of whether age of initiation of alcohol use is a direct risk factor for subsequent problems ( Coie et al., 1993; Kellam and Rebok, 1992; Maggs and Schulenberg, 2001).”

“CTC, a leading model of “community empowerment” based on prevention science (Coie et al., 1993), targets adolescent behavior problems such as substance use, school drop-out, violence, and teen pregnancy.”

“As proposed by Coie and colleagues (Coie et al., 1993), the evaluation of differential effects of prevention programs on different groups may be important in order to learn more about the mechanisms and limitations of such efforts.”

“Many important changes in psychosocial outcome only arise at the point of school transitions, the change to a new developmental stage, or both (Coie et al., 1993; Roeser & Eccles, 1998; Wigfield & Eccles, 1994).”

“The interaction is altered by the presence of risk and protective factors that explain the variance in outcomes within a population (Coie et al., 1993) and therefore act as determinants of health (Phelan & Link, 2005); for Latinas, acculturation and religiosity are two such determinants.”

“Additionally, many prevention programs affect not only the targeted individual but also those affected by an intervention target’s behavior (e.g., peers, family, authorities, and society at large; Biglan 2016; Coie et al. 1993).”

“However, the difference in perception and motivation between white and black students disappeared when students were also informed that high standards were being used and were assured that the mentor believed they could meet those standards ( Cohen, Steele, & Ross, 1999 ).”

“Tsai (2018) posits three models of syndemics: they can be “synergistically interacting”, which means the interaction between conditions amplifies health burdens (Singer and Clair, 2003); they can be “mutually causal”, which means each condition simultaneously influences the nature of the other (Singer, 2006); they can…”

“…evidence from multiple, independent longitudinal studies shows that the cumulative eff ect, and not simply the presence of isolated risk or diversity factors, makes students vulnerable to adverse outcomes (Bureau of the Census, 1996; Coie et al., 1993; Rutt er & Sroufe, 2000; Werner, 1989).”

“It is similar to the construct of resilience, which is receiving increasing attention in developmental psychology because it may strengthen resources and processes that reduce the likelihood of risk behaviors among adolescents (21, 22 ).”

“In each and every refugee situation, policy makers must avail themselves of a systematic needs assessment of those psychosocial risk factors that can be modified by their policy decisions (Cole et al., 1993).”

“A promising strategy for the prevention of health and behavior problems among adolescents is a risk- and protective-focused approach [8-10].”

“First, both teachers and peers may independently exacerbate or reduce children's externalizing behavior (a unique influence model; see Coie et al, 1993 ; Ladd & Burgess, 2001 ).”

“The emerging consensus of scholars (Arcus, 1995; Center for Marriage and Family, 1995; Coie et al., 1993; Etzioni, 1993; Gottman, 1994; Guerney & Maxson, 1990; D. B. Larson, Swyers, & Larson, 1995; National Marriage Project, 1999; Silliman, Stanley, Coffin, Markman, & Jordan, in press) and…”

“Preventive interventions aim to counteract risk factors and reinforce protective factors to disrupt processes that contribute to human dysfunction (Coie et al., 1993).”

“These adaptive behaviors (or skills) are important to include in studies of child psychopathology, as they are identified as important protective factors against the development of child-Typology of Child Behavior 455 hood psychopathology ( Coie et al., 1993 ).”

“In developing and evaluating Lunch Buddy mentoring as a form of selective intervention for bullied children, an important goal is adhering to the tenets of prevention science (Coie et al. 1993).”

“, effect modification; Coie et al., 1993). More recently, protective factors have been termed “promoting factors” when they exert direct, positive effects on health (KiaKeating, Dowdy, Morgan, & Noam, 2011). • Identify illness-promoting and health-promoting characteristics of individuals and their social ecology • Ide…”

“There is growing consensus that many protective factors are not specific to a single form of psychopathology but are common to a number of disorders (Coie et al., 1993).”

“Poor children are often assumed to be homogenous because they share many risk factors that result in the development of offending (Dryfoos 1990; Coie et al. 1993).”