Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.

“A comprehensive model suggested by Keller (1983) includes four basic strategies: attention focusing, relevance, confidence building, and satisfaction.”

“Students with high levels of internal motivation are more aware of themselves and stan-dardize their study plans, which increases the amount of effort they put into their studies [99].”

“Social–Emotional Learning and Student Engagement Existing research also recognizes that teacher instruction plays a central role in maximizing students’ motivation and engagement (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Drawing attention to the teacher’s role in CL settings, Webb and Palincsar (1996) illustrated that in order to promote CL, teachers should not only define the group assignment adequately; they should also be clear about the rules for CL; i.”

“They all refer to engaging in learning and academic tasks, such as putting in effort, persisting, concentrating, paying attention, asking questions, and contributing to class discussions [62]; affectively reacting in the classroom, including showing interest, boredom, happiness, sadness, and anxiety [62,63]; and cogni…”

“…and the classroom environment is clearly a pre-requisite for the creation of a good learning environment (Bandura, 1997; Muijs and Reynolds, 2002; Skinner and Belmont, 1993), there is little empirical evidence about the impact of teachers’ efficacy beliefs on their management of children’s…”

“- Helping student teachers become more aware of opportunities to improve the social-emotional climate in the classroom (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), and to use approaches promoting a positive group feeling.”

“As a result, one cannot draw any causal conclusions – the evidence can indicate an inverse relationship, i.e., student outcomes influence transformational instructor-leadership (see Skinner & Belmont, 1993 for such reciprocal effects found in grades 3 to 5 classrooms).”

“…is characterized by passive behavior (e.g. not making an effort in class, being bored, giving up easily) as well as displaying negative emotions such as anger, blame, and denial (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), which can develop into more chronic emotional states such as boredom, depression, and anxiety.”

“Engagement here can be defined as a focused involvement in an activity that is accompanied by a positive emotional tone (Skinner and Belmont 1993).”

“In turn, school engagement is a primary pathway by which motivational processes contribute to learning and development (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Teachers regulate activities in the classroom in the form of monitoring their students’ behavior, work, and progress, and by creating rules and a structure in the classroom that provides clarity and predictability for students (Kohn, 1996; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Positivity Affective-emotional engagement refers to the affective reactions of students in the classroom, including anxieties, feelings of belongingness, happiness, sadness, interest, and boredom (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Both care scholarship (Noddings, 1984, 1992) and engagement literature (Frenzel, Goetz, Ludtke, Pekrun, & Sutton, 2009; Skinner & Belmont, 1993) also attend closely to the dynamic between a teacher and a student.”

“Among those studies, some reported a relatively stable trend of teachers’ involvement with a small tendency of declining over time (e.g., Brekelmans 1989; Mainhard et al. 2011; Ryan and Patrick 2001; Skinner and Belmont 1993), while others documented that teachers’ interpersonal involvement tends to deteriorate over t…”

“Another view equates engagement with intrinsic motivation [14-16].”

“However, it is also possible that there are actually two processes going on which are cancelling each other out (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“In addition to focusing on feelings of happiness, interest, anxiety, and the feeling of belonging, some conceptualizations include the students’ perceptions of support from other important people in this dimension [16,17].”

“Furthermore, students' perceptions of the learning environment seem to be relevant to their academicmotivation and engagement for school (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Opdenakker &Minnaert, 2011).1 Pintrich (2003) discovered that teachers' provision of clear and accurate feedback regarding competence…”

“…and close relationships with their teachers were more likely to participate in classroom activities, enjoyed being in school, and expressed fewer desires to miss school (e.g., Hughes & Kwok, 2006, 2007; Hughes, Zhang, & Hill, 2006; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner, Wellborn, & Connell, 1990).”

“Both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation can be manipulated to optimize student attitudes, performance, and growth (see e.g., Skinner & Belmont, 1993), but not all parental motivational factors equally influence student motivation (see e.g., Ginsburg & Bronstein, 1993; Lepper, Green, & Nisbett,…”

“…learning (Jimerson et al., 2003; Stipek, 2002), feelings of identification with or belonging in school (Finn, 1989), or various emotions (e.g., interest, boredom, happiness, anxiety, etc.) that students experience in the classroom (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Pekrun, 2009, Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Positive academic outcomes are more likely to arise when students show motivational indicators of engagement, such as being fully immersed, interested, and actively participating (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner, Furrer, Marchand, & Kindermann, 2008).”

“…as behavioral involvement in two broad categories of learning activities: procedural, or participation associated with classroom routines; and substantive, or participation associated with specific instructional content of academic study (Nystrand & Gamoran, 1992; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“It also describes how the social environment (e.g., parents and teachers) respondsto low achievers in a controlling and negative manner (Deci et al 1982; Skinner and Belmont 1993).”

“Examples of such behaviors include a�ention toward the teacher (Greenwood, Horton, & Utley, 2002), involvement in learning tasks (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), and initiating activities when given the opportunity (Klem & Connell, 2004).”

“However, educational researchers and scholars have made intense criticism of the conventional schooling system for being weak in motivating learners [66].”

“…Psicodida ́ctica 20(2).indb 306́ 1/6/15 09:33:05 WHEN ADOLESCENTS WITH HIGH SELF-CONCEPT LOSE THEIR ENGAGEMENT IN SCHOOL 307 Revista de Psicodidáctica, 2015, 20(2), 000-000 son, Crosnoe, & Elder, 2001) and to the sense of identification with school (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; V oelkl, 1997).”

“…greater autonomy in the classroom (in this case, an YPAR classroom) is associated with higher behavioral engagement is consistent with the theoretical and empirical literature in human development and education reviewed earlier (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Shernoff et al., 2003; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Given the reciprocal nature of the student-instructor relationship (Schlechty and Atwood 1977; Skinner and Belmont 1993), it would be expected that instructors also view confrontational situations – such as having to reprimand a student for texting during class – as detrimental to the…”

“A competence-supportive environment is based on the use of strategies designed to optimize the perception of a person’s ability, giving enough time to achieve the aims, using positive feedback and recognizing effort and progress [33].”

“…children develop stronger intrinsic motivation when parents and teachers are less controlling and more supportive of their autonomy in choosing and initiating activities (Deci, Hodges, Pierson, & Tomasone, 1992; Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci, 1991; Rosenholtz & Simpson, 1984; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“…with positive learning outcomes (e.g., grades and standardized tests; Carini, Kuh, & Klein, 2006; Fredricks et al., 2004), motivation to learn (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), critical thinking (Carini et al., 2006), and persistence (Kuh, Cruce, Shoup, Kinzie, & Gonyea, 2008), but negatively with…”

“Learning engagement is a continuous act of learning activity, accompanied by a state of passionate emotion (Skinner and Belmont, 1993).”

“Classroom engagement and teacherestudent relations For some authors, classroom engagement can specifically be operationalized by the quality of student involvement with classmates and teachers (Finn, 1989; Ladd et al., 2000; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner et al., 2009, 1990).”

“…has shown the importance of teacher autonomy, competence, and relatedness support for various outcomes including student intrinsic motivation (Holembeak and Amorose 2005; Ntoumanis 2005; Wentzel 1999), academic engagement (Skinner and Belmont 1993), and wellbeing (Vansteenkiste et al. 2006).”

“Self-regulatory, autonomous learning as a concept stems from motivational theories of learning (Skinner and Belmont, 1993; Schunk and Zimmerman, 1997; Schunk, 1999).”

“…plays a crucial role in students’ emotional experiences (Gläser-Zikuda, Fuß, Laukenmann, Metz, & Randler, 2005; Hascher & Lobsang, 2004; Ma, 2003; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), it also has to be assumed that relationships between students and peers and students and their parents have an impact…”

“The self-system process model (Connell and Wellborn, 1991) is a more practical conception than SDT; therefore, several studies have adopted this framework (Connell and Wellborn, 1991; Skinner and Belmont, 1993).”

“…goals, optimal challenges that are solved both individually and in teams, thus affording both competence and relatedness satisfaction, which in turn facilitate autonomous types of motivation, perceived competence, and engagement (Skinner and Belmont, 1993; Jang et al., 2010; Chang et al., 2017).”

“Consequently, research in public schools has increasingly focused on the role of supportive relationships with teachers as a salient variable related to student outcomes (Eccles et al., 1993; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner, Zimmer-Gembeck, & Connell, 1998).”

“Disaffected emotional components include boredom, anxiety, and frustration (Skinner and Belmont, 1993).”

“For example, teacher reports of involvement have been shown to be correlated with students’ perception of teacher involvement (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Other studies (see Abel & Sewell, 1999; Skinner & Belmont, 1993) indicate that stressed and insecure teachers are more likely to be dissatisfied with their jobs, to disengage with students, or to exhibit behaviors conducive to further student violence and misbehavior.”

“…Perceived instructional support in higher education Instructional support has been studied under a variety of auspices including contextual support (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), teacher practices (Patall, Dent, Oyer, & Wynn, 2013), general classroom practices (Eccles, 2006), classroom social…”

“…in science class was assessed with two items (‘‘I felt interested today in science class” and ‘‘I enjoyed science class today”) adapted from the Engagement versus Disaffection with Learning Student Report (e.g. Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner, Kindermann, & Furrer, 2009).”

“For instance, Skinner and Belmont (1993) showed that students’ perceptions of classroom structure predicted behavioral engagement.”

“…causation appears to be a naturally occurring process within supervisor–supervisee relationships ( Jang et al., 2015), though this assertion needs to be qualified to the teacher– student domain in which it has so far been empirically investigated ( Jang et al., 2015; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”