Cited by 3,428Education, Achievement, and GiftednessMotivation and Self-Concept in SportsEarly Childhood Education and Development

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Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.

Skinner, Ellen A., Belmont, Michael J.·1993·Journal of Educational Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-0663.85.4.571

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Abstract

On the basis of a new model of motivation, we examined the effects of 3 dimensions of teacher (n = 14) behavior (involvement, structure, and autonomy support) on 144 children's (Grades 3-5) behavioral and emotional engagement across a school year. Correlational and path analyses revealed that teacher involvement was central to children's experiences in the classroom and that teacher provision of both autonomy support and optimal structure predicted children's motivation across the school year. Reciprocal effects of student motivation on teacher behavior were also found. Students who showed higher initial behavioral engagement received subsequently more of all 3 teacher behaviors. These findings suggest that students who are behaviorally disengaged receive teacher responses that should further undermine their motivation. The importance of the student-teacher relationship, especially interpersonal involvement, in optimizing student motivation is highlighted. What are the factors that motivate children to learn? Educators and parents value motivation in school for its own sake as well as for its long-term contribution to children's learning and self-esteem. Highly motivated children are easy to identify: They are enthusiastic, interested, involved, and curious; they try hard and persist; and they actively cope with challenges and setbacks. These are the children who should stay in school longer, learn more, feel better about themselves, and continue their education after high school. Recent research has borne this out (Ames & Ames, 1984, 1985; Pintrich, 1991; Stipek, 1988). Although motivated students are easy to recognize, they are difficult to find. Research shows that across the preschool to high school years, children's intrinsic motivation decreases and they feel increasingly alienated from learning (Harter, 1981). Why is it so difficult to optimize student motivation? Decades of psychological and educational research

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Background
Preventing Academic Disengagement Through a Middle School–Based Social and Emotional Learning Program
McBride, A. M., Chung, S., & Robertson, A. (2016) · Journal of Experiential Education · doi:10.1177/1053825916668901 · Cited by 48
“Emotional engagement was assessed through a subscale (α = .78) of the Engagement versus Disaffection With Learning (EvsD) Measure (Skinner & Belmont, 1993): My classes are fun; I enjoy learning new things in my classes; When we work on something in class, I feel interested; When I am in class, I…”
MethodInfluential
Effects of teacher framing on student engagement during collaborative reasoning discussions
Baker, A. R., Lin, T., Chen, J., Paul, N., Anderson, R. C., & Nguyen‐Jahiel, K. (2017) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.08.007 · Cited by 44
The Interplay of Students’ School Engagement, School Self-Concept and Motivational Relations during Adolescence
Bakadorova, O., & Raufelder, D. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02171 · Cited by 43
“This type of engagement especially supports students’ identification with their schools (Finn, 1989; Skinner and Belmont, 1993).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Need-supportive teaching practices and student-perceived need fulfillment in low socioeconomic status elementary schools: The moderating effect of anxiety and academic achievement
Kurdi, V., Archambault, I., Brière, F. N., & Turgeon, L. (2018) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2018.06.002 · Cited by 41
Motivational predictors of students' participation in out-of-school learning activities and academic attainment in science: An application of the trans-contextual model using Bayesian path analysis
Hagger, M. S., & Hamilton, K. (2018) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2018.09.002 · Cited by 44
Pandemic and teacher retention: empirical evidence from expat teachers in Southeast Asia during COVID-19
Hoang, A.-D. (2020) · International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy · doi:10.1108/ijssp-07-2020-0269 · Cited by 36
“, 2013) and psychological issues of stress (Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2016), motivation (Skinner and Belmont, 1993), belongingness (Jones and Watson, 2017) and satisfaction (Shaw and Newton, 2014).”
Background
Implementing an augmented reality and animated infographics application for presentations: effect on audience engagement and efficacy of communication
Doukianou, S., Daylamani-Zad, D., & O’Loingsigh, K. (2021) · Multimedia Tools and Applications · doi:10.1007/s11042-021-10963-4 · Cited by 36
“Engagement is key to meaningful learning, it has been related to attention, interest, striving to achieve goals and time efficiency [10, 15, 18, 23, 26, 42, 51, 52, 60, 66, 78].”
Background
Language, Access, and Power in the Elementary Science Classroom
Schoerning, E., Hand, B. M., Shelley, M., & Therrien, W. J. (2015) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21154 · Cited by 36
The effectiveness of an Autonomy-Supportive Teaching Structure in Physical Education. [Eficacia de la estructura de enseñanza con soporte de autonomía en educación física].
How, Y. M., & Wang, J. C. K. (2015) · RICYDE Revista Internacional de Ciencias del Deporte · doi:10.5232/ricyde2016.04301 · Cited by 44
“…strong guidance, giving precise instructions when needed, scheduling student activities, marking the boundaries of activities and managing the transitions between them, offering task-focused and informational feedback, and providing consistency in the lesson (Brophy, 2006; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”
The Role of Teachers in School Violence and Bullying Prevention
Yoon, J. S., & Barton, E. A. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-77119-9_13 · Cited by 36
School Completers and Noncompleters With Learning Disabilities
Bear, G. G., Kortering, L. J., & Braziel, P. M. (2006) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/07419325060270050401 · Cited by 36
An investigation of strategies for student motivation in the Chinese EFL context
Wong, R. M. H. (2014) · Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.1080/17501229.2013.777449 · Cited by 65
“Classroom discourse introducing and encouraging humor and avoiding facethreatening acts Teachers’ interpersonal motivational styles are a particularly important aspect of classroom environments that affects student motivation (Skinner and Belmont 1993).”
Background
Real-time teacher-student interactions: The dynamic interplay between need supportive teaching and student engagement over the course of one school year
Zeinstra, L. T., Küpers, E., Loopers, J., & de Boer, A. (2022) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2022.103906 · Cited by 52
The Impact of Gamification on Student Motivation and Engagement: An Empirical Study
Alsadoon, H. (2023) · Dirasat: Educational Sciences · doi:10.35516/edu.v50i2.255 · Cited by 51
“Additionally, according to Skinner and Belmont (1993), engagement demonstrates the emotional participation and passion in completing and sharing learning activities.”
Background
The effect of student-perceived teacher support on math anxiety: chain mediation of teacher–student relationship and math self-efficacy
Wang, C., Xu, Q., & Fei, W.-Q. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1333012 · Cited by 36
“The scale, developed by Chai and Gong (2013) with reference to relevant foreign measurement tools and studies (Skinner and Belmont, 1993; Chen, 2005), was adapted for students’ math learning in China, forming the Students’ Perceived Support for Math Teachers Scale.”
Method
Development and validation of a theoretically based, multidimensional questionnaire of student evaluation of university teaching
de Lemos, M. S., Queirós, C. M. L., Teixeira, P., & Menezes, I. (2010) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2010.493969 · Cited by 35
“The relational climate has been somewhat less studied in school contexts, but feelings of belongingness and connectedness to a community of learners might represent a fundamental motivator (Eccles, Wigfield, and Schiefele 1998 ; Moos 1979 ) affecting students’ self‐efficacy and learning autonomy (Skinner and Belmont 1…”
Background
A review of observational instruments to assess the motivational environment in sport and physical education settings
Smith, N., Quested, E., Appleton, P. R., & Duda, J. L. (2016) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2015.1132334 · Cited by 44
“…dimensions of the environment have been identified that are associated with athletes’ and students’ perceptions of autonomy, competence and relatedness satisfaction (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003; Reeve, Jang, Carrell, Jeon, & Barch, 2004; Reinboth, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2004; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”
Background
Identifying Learner’s Engagement in Learning Games - A Qualitative Approach based on Learner’s Traces of Interaction
Bouvier, P., Lavoué, É., Sehaba, K., & George, S. (2013) · International Conference on Computer Supported Education · doi:10.5220/0004386903390350 · Cited by 38
“During classroom lessons, teachers have the opportunities to assess and inﬂuence students’ engagement (Skinner and Belmont, 1993) by adapting the form or the content of the lessons according to several students’ characteristics such as personality, motivation, needs and affective states.”
Effects of social and individual school self-concepts on school engagement during adolescence
Bakadorova, O., Lazarides, R., & Raufelder, D. (2019) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-019-00423-x · Cited by 43
“It All Makes Us Feel Together”: Young People's Experiences of Virtual Group Music-Making During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Levstek, M., Barnby, R. M., Pocock, K., & Banerjee, R. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.703892 · Cited by 42
“Indeed, young people described feeling they can contribute to the construction of the sessions and activities planning, which was labeled as a “youth-led” approach in the model by Levstek and Banerjee (2021), and recognized as valuable in autonomy support by the existing SDT research (Skinner and Belmont, 1993; Assor…”
Background
Stereotypes and teacher characteristics as an explanation for the class-specific disciplinary practices of pre-service teachers
Dunkake, I., & Schuchart, C. (2015) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2015.04.005 · Cited by 35
Secondary teachers’ perceptions of the importance of pedagogical approaches to support students’ behavioural, emotional and cognitive engagement
Kelly, M., Yeigh, T., Hudson, S., Willis, R., & Lee, M. F. (2022) · The Australian Educational Researcher · doi:10.1007/s13384-022-00540-5 · Cited by 35
“Student engagement is central to the teaching and learning process, and the pedagogical decisions made by teachers can be critical to students’ experiences of engagement (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”
Background
Transactional Links Between Teacher–Student Relationships and Adolescent Rule-Breaking Behavior and Behavioral School Engagement: Moderating Role of a Dopaminergic Genetic Profile Score
Laet, S. D., Colpin, H., Leeuwen, K. G. V., Noortgate, W. V. D., Claes, S. J., Janssens, A., Goossens, L., & Verschueren, K. (2016) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-016-0466-6 · Cited by 43
School Factors That Promote Academic Resilience in Urban Latino High School Students
Fallon, C. M. (2010) · ProQuest Demo Repository · Cited by 35
Differential effects of the classroom on african american and non–african american's mathematics achievement
Schenke, K., Nguyen, T., Watts, T. W., Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000165 · Cited by 34
“Another speculation is that whereas classroom environments help support the learning and achievement of students, it is really students’ participation in those environments that influences their subsequent achievement (e.g., Ing et al., 2014; Ruzek et al., 2016; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”
Do athletes’ responses to coach autonomy support and control depend on the situation and athletes’ personal motivation?
Delrue, J., Soenens, B., Morbée, S., Vansteenkiste, M., & Haerens, L. (2019) · Psychology of Sport and Exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.04.003 · Cited by 44
Reducing Suspension among Academically Disengaged Black Males
Toldson, I. A., McGee, T., & Lemmons, B. P. (2013) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 34
Effects of perceived teacher support on motivation and engagement amongst Chinese college students: Need satisfaction as the mediator
Zhou, L., Yabing, G., Hu, J., Tu, X., & Zhang, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.949495 · Cited by 46
“For instance, only students’ perceived structure and involvement, but not autonomy support, could predict their engagement (Skinner and Belmont, 1993).”
Background
The predictive effect of perceived teacher support on college EFL learners’ online learning engagement: autonomous and controlled motivation as mediators
Yang, Y., & Du, C. (2023) · Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development · doi:10.1080/01434632.2023.2259879 · Cited by 34
“Compe-tence support, or structure support, arises when teachers clarify goals, rules, and expectations and provide guidance and constructive feedback (Skinner and Belmont 1993).”
Identifying determinants of teachers' judgment (in)accuracy regarding students' school-related motivations using a Bayesian cross-classified multi-level model
Praetorius, A., Koch, T., Scheunpflug, A., Zeinz, H., & Dresel, M. (2017) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.06.003 · Cited by 34
Evaluation of awarding badges on Student’s engagement in Gamified e-learning systems
Imran, H. (2019) · Smart Learning Environments · doi:10.1186/s40561-019-0093-2 · Cited by 40
“Moreover, sustained engagement is indicated by persistence and intense efforts in the entire learning process (Skinner and Belmont 1993).”
Background
Physical literacy praxis: A theoretical framework for transformative physical education
Gleddie, D., & Morgan, A. (2020) · Prospects · doi:10.1007/s11125-020-09481-2 · Cited by 44

Authors: Skinner, E. A., & Belmont, M. J.
Affiliations: Portland State University (US)
ORCID: Skinner, Ellen A.
Venue: Journal of Educational Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1993-12
Volume: 85
Issue: 4
Pages: 571-581
ISSN: 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
1939-2176
DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.85.4.571
OpenAlex: W2165027149
Cited by: 3,428
References: 37
Citations by year: 2026: 115 · 2025: 153 · 2024: 181 · 2023: 290 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 212 · 2020: 227 · 2019: 197 · 2018: 164 · 2017: 175 · 2016: 171 · 2015: 176 · 2014: 196 · 2013: 162 · 2012: 157
FWCI: 9.14
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Keywords: student motivation, teacher behavior, behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, teacher participation, autonomy support, classroom structure, reciprocal effects, teacher-student relationship, intrinsic motivation, elementary school students

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Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.

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