Cited by 3,428Education, Achievement, and GiftednessMotivation and Self-Concept in SportsEarly Childhood Education and Development

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Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.

Skinner, Ellen A., Belmont, Michael J.·1993·Journal of Educational Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-0663.85.4.571

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Abstract

On the basis of a new model of motivation, we examined the effects of 3 dimensions of teacher (n = 14) behavior (involvement, structure, and autonomy support) on 144 children's (Grades 3-5) behavioral and emotional engagement across a school year. Correlational and path analyses revealed that teacher involvement was central to children's experiences in the classroom and that teacher provision of both autonomy support and optimal structure predicted children's motivation across the school year. Reciprocal effects of student motivation on teacher behavior were also found. Students who showed higher initial behavioral engagement received subsequently more of all 3 teacher behaviors. These findings suggest that students who are behaviorally disengaged receive teacher responses that should further undermine their motivation. The importance of the student-teacher relationship, especially interpersonal involvement, in optimizing student motivation is highlighted. What are the factors that motivate children to learn? Educators and parents value motivation in school for its own sake as well as for its long-term contribution to children's learning and self-esteem. Highly motivated children are easy to identify: They are enthusiastic, interested, involved, and curious; they try hard and persist; and they actively cope with challenges and setbacks. These are the children who should stay in school longer, learn more, feel better about themselves, and continue their education after high school. Recent research has borne this out (Ames & Ames, 1984, 1985; Pintrich, 1991; Stipek, 1988). Although motivated students are easy to recognize, they are difficult to find. Research shows that across the preschool to high school years, children's intrinsic motivation decreases and they feel increasingly alienated from learning (Harter, 1981). Why is it so difficult to optimize student motivation? Decades of psychological and educational research

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Carvalho, C., Conboy, J., Santos, J. M., Fonseca, J. M. B., Tavares, D. M. B., Martins, D., Salema, M. H., Fiúza, E., & Gama, A. P. (2017) · Psicologia Teoria e Pesquisa · doi:10.1590/0102-3772e323219 · Cited by 55
Students' academic and emotional adjustment during the transition from primary to secondary school: A cross-lagged study
Engels, M., Pakarinen, E., Lerkkanen, M., & Verschueren, K. (2019) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2019.07.012 · Cited by 76
Trajectory patterns of academic engagement among elementary school students: The implicit theory of intelligence and academic self‐efficacy matters
Zhen, R., Liu, R., Wang, M., Ding, Y., Jiang, R., Fu, X., & Sun, Y. (2019) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12320 · Cited by 65
Strategies to Enhance or Maintain Motivation in Learning a Foreign Language
Muñoz, A. P., Ramírez, M. B., & Gaviria, S. (2020) · PROFILE Issues in Teachers Professional Development · doi:10.15446/profile.v22n1.73733 · Cited by 68
“Providing step-by-step directions and enough support throughout the different instructional stages enhances students’ motivation by keeping them on task, managing their behavior, and avoiding confusion during lessons (Larkin, 2001; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Tucker et al., 2002).”
Background
Practitioner Review: Dyadic teacher–child relationships: comparing theories, empirical evidence and implications for practice
Spilt, J. L., Verschueren, K., van Minderhout, M., & Koomen, H. M. Y. (2022) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13573 · Cited by 83
“Studies that include all three dimensions signify the important role of involvement (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Stroet, Opdenakker, & Minnaert, 2015).”
Background
Understanding classroom competence: The role of social-motivational and self-processes
Wentzel, K. R. (2004) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/s0065-2407(04)80008-9 · Cited by 59
High School Reform and Student Engagement
Davis, M. H., & McPartland, J. M. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_25 · Cited by 54
The impact of different sources of social support on academic performance: Intervening factors and mediated pathways in the case of master's thesis
Dupont, S., Galand, B., & Nils, F. (2015) · European Review of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.erap.2015.08.003 · Cited by 63
Teachers adapt their instruction according to students’ academic performance
Nurmi, J., Viljaranta, J., Tolvanen, A. J., & Aunola, K. (2012) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2012.675645 · Cited by 59
“While the vast majority of the previous research on teacher instruction and classroom practice has focused on investigating how teachers deal with the whole classroom or students in different ability groups, only few studies have investigated how teachers instruct a particular child (Babad, 1996 ; Skinner & Belmont, 1…”
Background
Teachers’ beliefs, instructional behaviors, and students’ engagement in learning from texts with instructional pictures
Schroeder, S., Richter, T., McElvany, N., Hachfeld, A., Baumert, J., Schnotz, W., Horz, H., & Ullrich, M. (2010) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2010.06.001 · Cited by 61
“For example, Skinner and Belmont (1993) reported positive effects of the degree of instructional structure on students’ engagement.”
Background
Theory–practice dichotomy in inquiry: Meanings and preservice teacher–mentor teacher tension in Turkish literacy classrooms
Yaylı, D. (2007) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2007.10.004 · Cited by 54
Learner centered higher education in East Asia: assessing the effects on student engagement
Hallinger, P., & Lu, J. (2013) · International Journal of Educational Management · doi:10.1108/ijem-06-2012-0072 · Cited by 54
“Our conceptual definition of student engagement is the intensity and emotional quality of students’ individual and collaborative involvement in the class (Edgerton, 2001; Skinner and Belmont, 1993; Smith et al., 2005).”
Background
The mediating role of social relationships in the association of adolescents’ individual school self-concept and their school engagement, belonging and helplessness in school
Raufelder, D., Sahabandu, D., Martínez, G., & Escobar, V. (2015) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2013.849327 · Cited by 60
“In accordance with Connell and his colleagues (Connell, 1990; Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), engagement and disaffected patterns of action can be understood as two ends of a continuum.”
Background
“I’m Not Learning”: The Role of Academic Relevancy for Low-Achieving Students
Crumpton, H. E., & Gregory, A. (2010) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220670903567398 · Cited by 54
“A 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 4 (very much) was used to rate statements (Skinner & Belmont, 1993) such as “I try to do well in this class” and “When I’m in this class, I just act like I’m working” (reverse scored).”
Method
Modeling the Relations among Parental Involvement, School Engagement and Academic Performance of High School Students
Al-Alwan, A. F. (2014) · International Education Studies · doi:10.5539/ies.v7n4p47 · Cited by 54
Relations among basic psychological needs, PE-motivation and fundamental movement skills in 9–12-year-old boys and girls in Physical Education
van Aart, I., Hartman, E. E., Elferink-Gemser, M. T., Mombarg, R., & Visscher, C. (2015) · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/17408989.2015.1112776 · Cited by 57
“…literature findings, two new items, one for teacher relatedness (‘I feel my PE-teacher gives everyone the same opportunities’) (Sarrazin et al. 2006; Skinner and Belmont 1993) and one for classmate relatedness (‘I feel attached to my classmates because we accept each other’) (Cox, Duncheon, and…”
Background
Detecting the effect of student engagement in an SVVR school-based course on higher level competence development in elementary schools by SEM
Sun, F.-R., Pan, L.-F., Wan, R.-G., Li, H., & Wu, S.-J. (2018) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2018.1558258 · Cited by 56
Fostering middle school students’ autonomy to support motivation and engagement
Alley, K. M. (2019) · Middle School Journal · doi:10.1080/00940771.2019.1603801 · Cited by 62
“In this capacity, structure is defined as the amount and clarity of information teachers provide to students regarding their expectations and the ways students can effectively achieve those outcomes (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner, Zimmer-Gembeck, & Connell, 1998).”
Background
Teaching practices and student engagement in early adolescence: A longitudinal study using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System
McKellar, S. E., Cortina, K. S., & Ryan, A. M. (2019) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2019.102936 · Cited by 72
The reciprocal relations among basic psychological need satisfaction at school, positivity and academic achievement in Chinese early adolescents
Zhou, J., Huebner, E. S., & Tian, L. (2020) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101370 · Cited by 60
Examining multiple engagements and their impact on students' knowledge acquisition: the moderating role of information overload
Feroz, H. M. B., Zulfiqar, S., Noor, S., & Huo, C.-H. (2021) · Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1108/jarhe-11-2020-0422 · Cited by 47
A meta-analysis of teachers’ provision of structure in the classroom and students’ academic competence beliefs, engagement, and achievement
Patall, E. A., Yates, N., Lee, J., Chen, M., Bhat, B. H., Lee, K., Beretvas, S. N., Lin, S., Hooper, S. Y., Jacobson, N. G., et al. (2023) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2023.2274104 · Cited by 85
“For example, Skinner et al. (e.g., Skinner, Furrer, Marchand, & Kindermann, 2008; Skinner & Belmont, 1993) showed that elementary and middle school students had enhanced behavioral and emotional engagement when their teachers had been observed or reported to provide highly structured learning…”
BackgroundInfluential
Students’ engagement profiles in mathematics according to learning environment dimensions: Developing an evidence base for best practice in mathematics education
Watt, H. M. G., Carmichael, C., & Callingham, R. A. (2017) · School Psychology International · doi:10.1177/0143034316688373 · Cited by 62
“This might also include whether participation is voluntary (Fredricks, 2011) and the extent to which students apply effort (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), although the latter has at times been classed as an indicator of cognitive engagement (Fredericks et al., 2004).”
Background
Educational placement and achievement motivation of students with special educational needs
Kocaj, A., Kuhl, P., Jansen, M., Pant, H. A., & Stanat, P. (2018) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.09.004 · Cited by 65
Reading Amount and Reading Strategy as Mediators of the Effects of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Reading Motivation on Reading Achievement
Wang, X., Jia, L., & Jin, Y. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586346 · Cited by 83
The Link Between Responsive Classroom Training and Student–Teacher Relationship Quality in the Fifth Grade: A Study of Fidelity of Implementation
Baroody, A. E., Rimm-Kaufman, S., Larsen, R., & Curby, T. W. (2014) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/02796015.2014.12087455 · Cited by 48
“Studies suggest that teachers tend to treat students differentially based on student characteristics and responses (Newberry & Davis, 2008; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”
Background
Student interest, empowerment and motivation
Weber, K., & Patterson, B. R. (2000) · Communication Research Reports · doi:10.1080/08824090009388747 · Cited by 53
Motivation, pedagogy, and gender: examining the multifaceted and dynamic situational responses of women and men in college STEM courses
Stolk, J. D., Gross, M. D., & Zastavker, Y. V. (2021) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-021-00283-2 · Cited by 76
“…are influenced by personal and contextual variables and shaped by students’ appraisals and interpretations of the learning experience (Corpus and Wormington 2014; Deci and Ryan 2000; Garcia and Pintrich 1996; Lavigne and Vallerand 2010; Ratelle et al. 2005; Skinner and Belmont 1993; Young 2005).”
Background
Emotionally and motivationally supportive classrooms: A state-trait analysis of lesson- and classroom-specific variation in teacher- and student-reported teacher enthusiasm and student engagement
Gaspard, H., & Lauermann, F. (2021) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2021.101494 · Cited by 66
Four Guideposts toward an Integrated Model of Academic Motivation: Motivational Resilience, Academic Identity, Complex Social Ecologies, and Development
Skinner, E. A. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09790-w · Cited by 74
“Encouragingly, in the few studies that have looked for them to date, both directions of effects have typically been found (e.g., Green et al., 2012; 80 Page 34 of 49 Jang et al., 2016; Kerr et al., 2012; Schuitema et al., 2016; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The examination of the relationship between learning motivation and learning effectiveness: a mediation model of learning engagement
Lei, H., Chen, C., & Luo, L. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-02666-6 · Cited by 52
Factors at Play in Tertiary Curriculum Gamification
de Byl, P. (2013) · International Journal of Game-Based Learning · doi:10.4018/ijgbl.2013040101 · Cited by 51
“In order for a system to be gamified, Smith-Robbins (2011) argues that it requires three essential characteristics.”
Background

Authors: Skinner, E. A., & Belmont, M. J.
Affiliations: Portland State University (US)
ORCID: Skinner, Ellen A.
Venue: Journal of Educational Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1993-12
Volume: 85
Issue: 4
Pages: 571-581
ISSN: 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
1939-2176
DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.85.4.571
OpenAlex: W2165027149
Cited by: 3,428
References: 37
Citations by year: 2026: 115 · 2025: 153 · 2024: 181 · 2023: 290 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 212 · 2020: 227 · 2019: 197 · 2018: 164 · 2017: 175 · 2016: 171 · 2015: 176 · 2014: 196 · 2013: 162 · 2012: 157
FWCI: 9.14
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Keywords: student motivation, teacher behavior, behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, teacher participation, autonomy support, classroom structure, reciprocal effects, teacher-student relationship, intrinsic motivation, elementary school students

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Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.

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