Cited by 3,428Education, Achievement, and GiftednessMotivation and Self-Concept in SportsEarly Childhood Education and Development

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Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.

Skinner, Ellen A., Belmont, Michael J.·1993·Journal of Educational Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-0663.85.4.571

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Abstract

On the basis of a new model of motivation, we examined the effects of 3 dimensions of teacher (n = 14) behavior (involvement, structure, and autonomy support) on 144 children's (Grades 3-5) behavioral and emotional engagement across a school year. Correlational and path analyses revealed that teacher involvement was central to children's experiences in the classroom and that teacher provision of both autonomy support and optimal structure predicted children's motivation across the school year. Reciprocal effects of student motivation on teacher behavior were also found. Students who showed higher initial behavioral engagement received subsequently more of all 3 teacher behaviors. These findings suggest that students who are behaviorally disengaged receive teacher responses that should further undermine their motivation. The importance of the student-teacher relationship, especially interpersonal involvement, in optimizing student motivation is highlighted. What are the factors that motivate children to learn? Educators and parents value motivation in school for its own sake as well as for its long-term contribution to children's learning and self-esteem. Highly motivated children are easy to identify: They are enthusiastic, interested, involved, and curious; they try hard and persist; and they actively cope with challenges and setbacks. These are the children who should stay in school longer, learn more, feel better about themselves, and continue their education after high school. Recent research has borne this out (Ames & Ames, 1984, 1985; Pintrich, 1991; Stipek, 1988). Although motivated students are easy to recognize, they are difficult to find. Research shows that across the preschool to high school years, children's intrinsic motivation decreases and they feel increasingly alienated from learning (Harter, 1981). Why is it so difficult to optimize student motivation? Decades of psychological and educational research

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Background
Facilitating Engaged Learning in the Interaction Age Taking a Pedagogically-Disciplined Approach to Innovation with Emergent Technologies
Brill, J. M., & Park, Y. (2008) · Cited by 68
Motivating gifted and non-gifted students in regular primary schools: A self-determination perspective
Hornstra, L., Bakx, A. W. E. A., Mathijssen, A. C. S., & Denissen, J. J. A. (2020) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101871 · Cited by 87
An examination of the relationship between the perceived instructional behaviours of teacher educators and pre-service teachers’ learning motivation and teaching self-efficacy
Chan, S., Maneewan, S., & Koul, R. (2021) · Educational Review · doi:10.1080/00131911.2021.1916440 · Cited by 67
Understanding foreign language learners’ perceptions of teachers' practice with educational technology with specific reference to Kahoot! and Padlet: A case from China
Chen, Y.-M. (2021) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-021-10649-2 · Cited by 95
The Contribution of Social Goal Setting to Children's School Adjustment
Wentzel, K. R. (2002) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012750053-9/50011-5 · Cited by 68
Motivational decline and recovery in higher education STEM courses
Young, A. M., Wendel, P. J., Esson, J. M., & Plank, K. M. (2018) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2018.1460773 · Cited by 69
“Patterns of decline in Self determination by specific classes or topics could be attributed to disillusionment with or lack of interest in the subject, or instructors’ varied abilities to engage students (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”
Bidirectional associations between vocabulary and self-regulation in preschool and their interplay with teacher–child closeness and autonomy support
Cadima, J., Barros, S., Ferreira, T., Serra-Lemos, M., Leal, T., & Verschueren, K. (2018) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.04.004 · Cited by 84
Need-supportive teaching and student engagement in the classroom: Comparing the additive, synergistic, and global contributions
Olivier, É., Galand, B., Morin, A. J. S., & Hospel, V. (2020) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101389 · Cited by 89
‘Snitches get stitches’: School-specific barriers to victim disclosure and peer reporting of sexual harm committed by young people in school contexts
Allnock, D. S., & Atkinson, R. (2019) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.12.025 · Cited by 67
Adopting the Situation in School Questionnaire to Examine Physical Education Teachers’ Motivating and Demotivating Styles Using a Circumplex Approach
Boulley, G. E., Guillet‐Descas, E., Aelterman, N., Vansteenkiste, M., Doren, N. V., Lentillon‐Kaestner, V., & Haerens, L. L. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18147342 · Cited by 93
“Structure denotes both the amount and clarity of information that PE teachers provide to students about their expectations as well as the necessary guidance “how to” effectively achieve desired outcomes [8,24].”
Background
Investigating the structural relationships among organisational support, learning flow, learners' satisfaction and learning transfer in corporate e‐learning
Joo, Y. J., Lim, K. Y., & Park, S. Y. (2010) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01116.x · Cited by 66
Students’ Anticipated Situational Engagement: The Roles of Teacher Behavior, Personal Engagement, and Gender
Thijs, J. T., & Verkuyten, M. (2009) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221320903218323 · Cited by 66
“According to the self-system model (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), students are more engaged when teachers provide them with structure and involvement.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Designing Business School Courses To Promote Student Motivation: An Application of the Job Characteristics Model
Debnath, S. C., Tandon, S., & Pointer, L. V. (2007) · Organizational Behavior Teaching Review · doi:10.1177/1052562906290914 · Cited by 70
“The JCM provides a theoretical basis as well as a framework for business school teachers to enhance student motivation by creating an appropriate classroom environment through effective course design.”
BackgroundInfluential
Motivated learning with digital learning tasks: what about autonomy and structure?
van Loon, A., Ros, A., & Martens, R. L. (2012) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-012-9267-0 · Cited by 79
“Moreover, from a motivational point of view, structure enables students to feel more competent (Grolnick and Ryan 1989; Skinner and Belmont 1993; Tucker et al. 2002).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Can personality traits modulate student engagement with learning and their attitude to employability?
Qureshi, A., Wall, H. J., Humphries, J. E., & Balani, A. B. (2016) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2016.08.026 · Cited by 66
“Good internal consistency has been reported for Skinner’s EvDLS (α = .81; Skinner & Belmont, 1993) and strong construct validity has been reported for both the EvDLS (Fredricks & McColskey, 2012; Skinner et al., 2008) and the CES (Mazer, 2012; 2013).”
Background
Beneficial for some or for everyone? Exploring the effects of an autonomy-supportive intervention in the real-life classroom.
Flunger, B., Mayer, A., & Umbach, N. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000284 · Cited by 65
How changes in teachers' dialogic discourse practice relate to changes in students' activation, motivation and cognitive engagement
Böheim, R., Schnitzler, K., Gröschner, A., Weil, M., Knogler, M., Schindler, A.-K., Alles, M., & Seidel, T. (2020) · Learning Culture and Social Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2020.100450 · Cited by 81
Engaging contexts: Drawing the link between student and teacher experiences of the hidden curriculum
Langhout, R. D., & Mitchell, C. A. (2008) · Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/casp.974 · Cited by 65
The effect of “here and now” learning on student engagement and academic achievement
Northey, G., Govind, R., Bucic, T., Chylinski, M., Dolan, R. M., & van Esch, P. (2017) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12589 · Cited by 70
“In a learning context, engagement behaviour occurs when students participate in learning activities and exert effort and concentration towards learning tasks (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”
Background
Structural relationships among internal locus of control, institutional support, flow, and learner persistence in cyber universities
Joo, Y. J., Joung, S., & Sim, W. J. (2010) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.09.007 · Cited by 64
“In addition, learners concentrating on the learning process maintain a positive emotional status and are likely to participate aggressively in learning, to select projects with a higher level of difficulty, and to concentrate on the learning situation (Skinner & Bermont, 1993).”
Background
"Learner-Centered" According to Children
Daniels, D. H., & Perry, K. E. (2003) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4202_3 · Cited by 64
“Previous research has found that children with close relationships to their teachers feel more satisfied and connected at school (Baker, 1999; Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ) and are more successful academically (Pianta, 1994).”
Background
The Brief Student–Teacher Classroom Interaction Observation
Reinke, W. M., Herman, K. C., & Newcomer, L. L. (2016) · Assessment for Effective Intervention · doi:10.1177/1534508416641605 · Cited by 73
“For example, Skinner and Belmont (1993) studied the relationship among teacher practices and the active engagement of students.”
Background
Flourishing in the forest: looking at Forest School through a self-determination theory lens
Barrable, A., & Arvanitis, A. (2018) · Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education · doi:10.1007/s42322-018-0018-5 · Cited by 100
“what the learners have to say, valuing and respecting their interests and listening in a way that facilitates the building of authentic connection and involvement (Deci et al. 1994; Skinner and Belmont 1993).”
Background
Investigating student engagement in computer-supported inquiry: a process-oriented analysis
Järvelä, S., Veermans, M., & Leinonen, P. (2008) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-007-9047-6 · Cited by 70
“The term “engagement” has been used by the researchers to involve both motivational and cognitive aspects of the construct, encompassing student initiation of action, effort and persistence in academic tasks, as well as their ambient emotional states during learning activities (Skinner and Belmont 1993).”
Background
Teachers' accounts of learners' engagement and disaffection in the language classroom
Mystkowska-Wiertelak, A. (2022) · The Language Learning Journal · doi:10.1080/09571736.2020.1800067 · Cited by 83
Making Interpretation Visible With an Affect-Based Strategy
Levine, S. R. (2014) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.71 · Cited by 63
Teacher support, academic engagement and learning anxiety in online foreign language learning
Li, X., Zhang, F., Duan, P., & Yu, Z. (2024) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13430 · Cited by 83
Say it loud-i'm black and I'm Proud: Parents' messages about race, racial discrimination, and academic achievement in african american boys
Neblett, E. W., Chavous, T. M., Nguyên, H. X., & Sellers, R. M. (2009) · Project Muse (Johns Hopkins University) · Cited by 61
Teacher ratings of student engagement with educational software: An exploratory study
Bangert‐Drowns, R. L., & Pyke, C. L. (2002) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504992 · Cited by 64
“Teachers are fairly adept at rating student achievement and motivation (e.g., Hoge & Coladarci, 1989; Perry & Meisels, 1996; Skinner and Belmont, 1993).”
BackgroundInfluential

Authors: Skinner, E. A., & Belmont, M. J.
Affiliations: Portland State University (US)
ORCID: Skinner, Ellen A.
Venue: Journal of Educational Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1993-12
Volume: 85
Issue: 4
Pages: 571-581
ISSN: 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
1939-2176
DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.85.4.571
OpenAlex: W2165027149
Cited by: 3,428
References: 37
Citations by year: 2026: 115 · 2025: 153 · 2024: 181 · 2023: 290 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 212 · 2020: 227 · 2019: 197 · 2018: 164 · 2017: 175 · 2016: 171 · 2015: 176 · 2014: 196 · 2013: 162 · 2012: 157
FWCI: 9.14
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Keywords: student motivation, teacher behavior, behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, teacher participation, autonomy support, classroom structure, reciprocal effects, teacher-student relationship, intrinsic motivation, elementary school students

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Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.

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