Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.

“A comprehensive model suggested by Keller (1983) includes four basic strategies: attention focusing, relevance, confidence building, and satisfaction.”

“The latter result is in alignment with those reported in Tessier et al.’s (2008) study, in which a similar behavior was not affected by the educational program.”

“The selfdetermination view suggests that teacher support occurs when students perceive cognitive (Skinner et al., 2008), emotional (Skinner and Belmont, 1993), or autonomy-oriented support from a teacher during the students’ learning process (Wellborn and Connell, 1987).”

“(Tony) Skinner and Belmont (1993) argue that engaged students are persistently involved in their learning tasks; they participate in learning activities when given chance and put extra effort and concentration in the completion of the learning task: On the contrary, Charlotte (who on the survey…”

“Behavioral engagement items tapped “students’ effort, attention, and persistence during the initiation and execution of learning activities” (Skinner & Belmont, 1993, p. 575).”

“Raters scored three aspects of participants’ engagement during the lesson (based on Skinner & Belmont, 1993): on-task attention, effort, and persistence.”

“…records, such as homework completion, absences, achievement test scores, and teacher ratings of classroom conduct (Lehr, Sinclair, & Christenson, 2004; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), but these measures are limited in what they can reveal about engagement at the microan-alytic level espoused here.”

“In addition, Skinner and Belmont (1993) reported similar processes in the teacher–student relationship.”

“Hence, by providing instructional help, assigning learning activities that are appropriate to their abilities, and providing informational feedback, teachers can help students achieve competence (Leon et al., 2017; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“As to the second factor (quality of the interpersonal relationship), each of the following qualities in a socializer contributes positively to the socializee’s willingness to accept (i.e., internalize) a communicated rationale: warmth (Goodenow, 1993; Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1989), involvement ( Skinner & Belmo…”

“…focuses on clear information, predictability, prevention of misbehavior and proactive supports, this dimension of teaching style is hypothesized to be important for all children's functioning in general (e.g., Connell & Wellborn, 1991; La Paro et al., 2004; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“This orientation is reflected well in the definition offered by Skinner & Belmont (1993): Engagement versus disaffection in school refers to the intensity and emotional quality of children’s involvement in initiating and carrying out learning activities…Children who are engaged show sustained…”

“…beliefs about engagement because these beliefs shape teachers' behaviors (i.e., teacher involvement, support, and use of autonomy-supportive practices), which have been shown to influence student engagement (Klem & Connell, 2004; Reeve, Jang, Carrell, Barch, & Jeon, 2004; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“For example, although it might be economically motivating to replace teachers with AI systems, research has shown student–teacher relationships to be a key factor in creating an environment for positive student development and learning 23,34 .”

“It has been suggested that the intensity and experienced quality of a student’s involvement in social relations and learning activities is a central criterion for school engagement (Gresalfi, Martin, Hand, & Greeno, 2009; Linnenbrink-Garcia & Pekrun, 2011; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Skinner and Belmont (1993) investigated ''motivational engagement" or the "intensity and emotional quality of children's involvement in initiating and carrying out learning activities" (p. 2).”

“Students reported their cooperation on a 10-item scale, which has been found to have good internal consistency with an alpha of .81 and to be related to the quality of teacher– student interactions (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“In this respect affording choices, offering rationale, recognizing interests, and offering help and support are promising reading promotion strategies (Reeve, 2002; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Teachers can increase engagement by being honest and fair, considering students’ opinions when making decisions, and by listening and talking to their students (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Wentzel, 1997).”

“On the SSRS Social Skills Subscale (Teacher-Report), there was not a significant difference between the variance of the overall normative sample (K-6) and the variance obtained in this study, F(906, 43)=1.23.”

“For instance, time spent on task in academic engagement can also be conceptualized as a component of behavioral engagement (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“According to a self-system model of motivation, the influence of teachers may be manifest in three ways (see Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner, Wellborn, & Connell, 1990).”

“Consequently, supports for intrinsic motivation in the classroom focus on strategies to enhance the fulfillment of these three needs among students (e.g., Reeve, 2009; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Skinner and Belmont (1993) found reciprocal effects between teacher support (i.e., autonomy support, structure, and involvement) and student engagement (i.e., behavioural and emotional) for Grade 3–5 students.”

“…three needs, SDT specifies three characteristics of need-supportive environments: such environments are autonomy-supportive instead of controlling, well-structured and competence-facilitating instead of chaotic and critical, and emotionally involved instead of withdrawn (Skinner and Belmont 1993).”

“The emotional factors involve students’ affective communication and practices on campus [16].”

“…positive classroom climates) also corroborated those of other motivational researchers who had documented how teachers’ emotional support is important both in academic and in interpersonal contexts (e.g., Patrick, Anderman, Ryan, Edelin, & Midgley, 2001; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Wentzel, 1997).”

“Students would feel their need for autonomy is satisfied when they find some degree of meaningful choice and purpose in their school activities and when their teachers are responsive and supportive (Reeve & Halusic, 2009; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“That teachers find autonomy and autonomy support to be largely new and unfamiliar motivational constructs has been shown by Skinner and Belmont (1993).”

“…IH -PA Author M anuscript Connell & Wellborn, 1991), which engender the will to participate cooperatively in classroom activities and to try hard and persist in the face of challenges (Anderman & Anderman, 1999; Birch & Ladd, 1997; Hughes, Luo, Kwok, & Loyd, 2008; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Researchers working with engagement as a construct have recognized the reciprocal relationship between what teachers do and how students respond (H. Jang, Reeve, & Deci, 2010; Oga-Baldwin et al., 2017; Skinner et al., 2008; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Regarding behavioral engagement, studies including both autonomy support and structure found only a positive main effect of structure (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Wang & Eccles, 2013).”

“Finally, engagement and disengagement are viewed as relatively malleable student characteristics that are open to constructive influences, such as a teacher’s support (Birch & Ladd, 1997) or a gain in autonomy need satisfaction (Jang, Kim, & Reeve, 2012; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Numerous dimensions of environmental support that have been related to student engagement include supportive relations with the teacher (Skinner & Belmont, 1993) and peers (Akey, 2006), teachers' support for autonomy (Reeve, 2006), peer acceptance (Hughes & Kwok, 2006), and immediate feedback…”

“In a reciprocal manner, children who are engaged in the classroom elicit supportive responses from both teachers and peers (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Ladd et al., 1999).”

“Although monitoring may promote motivation (Jang et al., 2010; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), motivation may be hindered if students perceive it as controlling or diminishing their autonomy or competence (Deci & Ryan, 1985).”

“The bene fi ts of high levels of closeness and low levels of con fl ict show to be signi fi cant from childhood through adolescence, as witnessed by studies of similar constructs, such as relatedness to teachers and supportive teacher – student relationships (e.g., Ryan et al., 1994; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Wentzel, 199…”

“…including warmth, pedagogical caring (Wentzel, 1997), closeness (Hamre & Pianta, 2001), acceptance (Wentzel, 1994), help, direction (Ryan & Shin, 2011), involvement, provision of structure, and autonomy support (Klem & Connell, 2004; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; see Quin, in press, for a review).”

“…in science class was assessed with 20 items we adapted for our use in a daily diary design from the Engagement versus Disaffection with Learning Student Report (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner et al., 2009) and the Metacognitive Strategies Questionnaire (Wolters, 2004).”

“For them, developing skills in summarization is essential (Hidi & Anderson, 1992), as is reflecting on their approach to and strategies for reading (BeckSr McKeown, 2001; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Zimmerman & MartinezPons, 1990).”

“Together, these forms of engagement have shown meaningful effects on achievement (Jang et al., 2012, 2016), and further positive reciprocal effects on teachers’ attitudes and behaviors toward students (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner et al., 2008).”

“In previous studies, students’ reports of their engagement in the classroom have been found to be significantly related to teachers’ reports of these same behaviors (Assor, Kaplan, Kanat-Maymon, & Roth, 2005; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Studies on younger children further demonstrate the association between teacher warmth and peer relations and social adjustment (Hughes, Cavell, & Willson, 2001; Kuperminc, Leadbeater, & Blatt, 2001; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Competence refers to pupils’ experience of a sense of effectance and to the display of confidence to achieve desired outcomes (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Sierens, Vansteenkiste, Goossens, Soenens, & Dochy, 2009).”

“The second factor that emerged from the factor analysis of the Scale for Academic Engagement (Skinner & Belmont, 1993) focused on students’ interest and excitement in engaging in new academic tasks in class.”

“Competence support was measured with 12 items based on previous measures that assessed student perceptions of supportive help, expectations, feedback from teachers, and instrumental help (Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ).”

“, provide rationales, take perspective) are more indirect, may appear to be more time-consuming, and may be experienced as more ‘‘foreign’’ (Newby 1991; Skinner and Belmont 1993).”

“In a seminal study of classroom motivation, Skinner and Belmont (1993) described the process in which teachers’ provision of support and resources shapes each individual student’s perception that their needs are met, exerting powerful implications on students’ motivation to M AN US CR IP T AC CE PT…”

“Sensations such as attention, love, excitement, happiness, and joy displayed by the learner for the learning environments are indicators of emotional engagement (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“…relatedness could indeed play an important role in children’s motivation (e.g., Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci, 1991; Moss & StLaurent, 2001; Ryan, Stiller, & Lynch, 1994; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Stipek, Salmon, Givvin, & Kazemi, 1998; Turner et al., 2002;Wentzel, 1997).”

“Teacher influences are likely the most powerful determinants of children’s classroom behavior, and they seem to work in a way that students who do well at one point in time tend to improve (or remain stable) across time (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“According to Fredricks et al. (2004), three ways are commonly utilised in defining behavioural engagement (Finn 1993; Finn, Pannozzo, & Voelkl, 1995; Finn & Rock, 1997; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), which Rumberger (2004) found to be a crucial factor in mediating the dropout process.”

“Students who are engaged pay attention and participate in classroom discussions, exert effort in classroom activities and exhibit an interest and motivation to learn (Fredricks et al., 2004; Marks, 2000; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“The understanding that perceived teacher support and positive teacher–student relationships are important for students’ motivation and learning is not new (e.g., Fraser & Fisher, 1982; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”