Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.

“A comprehensive model suggested by Keller (1983) includes four basic strategies: attention focusing, relevance, confidence building, and satisfaction.”

“Discussion A host of studies concerned with achievement motivation suggest that parents and teachers play a key role in influencing children’s achievement attitudes and academic outcomes (e.g., Frome & Eccles, 1998; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; see Eccles et al., 1998, for a review).”

“We used four items from the Behavioral Engagement subscale of the Engagement versus Disaffection with Learning Scale (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), which has been linked to the quality of peer relations in previous research (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Tucker et al., 2002).”

“Based on theory and research (e.g., Schunk & Pajares, 2005; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), we hypothesized that higher self-efficacy in math would relate to greater emotional and social engagement because students’ intra-psychic resources would be well matched to the challenges of the math classroom.”

“…because of isolated instances when students turned in their homework at the beginning of the day, but left school early and were not observed in class. students’ efforts are being rewarded through teacher responses (Skinner & Belmont, 1993) and academic outcomes (MacIver, Stipek, & Daniels, 1991).”

“Howard-Rose and Winne, 1993; Pintrich and de Groot, 1990), which is used to collect self-reports (e.g., Pintrich and de Groot, 1990; Skinner and Belmont, 1993 ), or teacher ratings or observations (e.g., Finn, Folger, and Cox, 1991; Skinner and Belmont, 1993).”

“…engagement, referring to students' self-reported affective reactions in classrooms, including interest, boredom, happiness, and anxiety (e.g., Skinner and Belmont 1993); and cognitive engagement, which refers to depth of processing and reported or observed ability to self-regulate one's…”

“Structure has been defined as the provision of desired information and guidance such that students can successfully achieve various outcomes (Grolnick and Pomerantz 2009; Skinner and Belmont 1993).”

“Students’ emotional engagement is about their feelings of interest and a sense of belonging to the educational context; their behavioral engagement is about their actual participation in class activities, and their cognitive engagement is about their effort towards mastering difficult content [30].”

“Similarly, Skinner and Belmont (1993) found that teacher provision of autonomy, support, and optimal structure predicted children’s engagement across the school year.”

“Silent students, for example, may be confronted with increased teacher control nurturing unfavorable motivational processes and decreased engagement over time due to their low participation (Skinner and Belmont 1993).”

“Students completed measures tapping their experiences of support from their classroom teachers along three dimensions (Skinner & Belmont, 1993): (1) warmth versus rejection, measured via 16 items tapping whether teachers spent time with students, showed them affection, and were available,…”

“Longitudinal studies of American children and youth without disabilities (Skinner and Belmont 1993) have shown that children and youth with a high perceived engagement learned more in school, had higher grades and more often completed their classes.”

“Structure was introduced as a concept in SDT research initially as a form of support for fulfilling the psychological need for competence (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), characterized by setting and communicating learning goals, setting clear expectations, and providing process-oriented feedback and…”

“Similar results were found by Skinner and Belmont (1993) in a longitudinal study.”

“This finding is consistent with previous studies that student performance could influence teacher practices in elementary school and preschool (Curby, Downer, & Booren, 2014; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“For example, while the results of Skinner and Belmont (1993) are intriguing, direct observations of classroom behavior are needed to increase the validity of any inferences made about the data.”

“They may even try to build extrinsic motivation by offering incentives or threatening consequences, using authoritarian language or neglecting students who demonstrate negative affect [66, 74].”

“Need-supportive environments have 3 main characteristics: autonomy supportive, competence facilitating (or well structured), and relatedness supportive.(42)”

“…that autonomy-supportive and controlling practices in classrooms have contrasting effects on motivational outcomes in Western culture (e.g., Benware & Deci, 1984; Black & Deci, 2000; Flink, Boggiano, Main, Barrett, & Katz, 1992; Roth, Assor, Kanat-Maymon, & Kaplan, 2007; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Yet, beside physical activity levels, students’ engagement is another important issue for PE teachers (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Furrer & Skinner, 2003).”

“…activities are organized and predictable, and students are involved in classroom decision and planning processes are hypothesized to enhance selfregulatory skills (Almeida, 1995; Brophy, 1998; Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Good & Weinstein, 1986; Lynn, 1994; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Zimmerman, 2000).”

“…because autonomous motivation is likely to be promoted when students experience sufficient provisions of involvement (feel related), feel more secure about the learning environment, and engage in more challenging tasks, which is recognized by SDT (Opdenakker & Maulana, 2010; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“For instance, Skinner and Belmont (1993) found that teacher behaviors such as provisions for structure and involvement influenced students’ perceived competence in school, which then impacted the students’ engagement and school performance.”

“The measure had a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 ( not at all true ) to 4 ( very true ), and included three items, such as, “This teacher really cares about me” ( Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ).”

“We reasoned that teachers would view help-seeking from students as a positive indicator of their motivation and interest in school work, and so it would elicit teacher support (Connell et al., 1994; Pelletier & Vallerand, 1996; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“As mentioned earlier, sense of connectedness is presumed to motivate students to do well in school, yet the “reverse” direction of effects (i.e., academic performance predicting relationships) is rarely tested (cf. Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“The reader also may be concerned that 1 year is a limited timeframe with which to investigate reciprocal effects, but other research in this field has used similar timeframes (Skinner and Belmont 1993; Van Ryzin et al. 2009).”

“…studies addressing instrumental obstruction tie negative teacher behaviors to maladaptive student outcomes (Birch & Ladd, 1997; Blankemeyer, Flannery, & Vazsonyi, 2002; Kesner, 2000; Walsh, 2002) and specifically to decreases in students’ motivation (Meyer & Turner, 2002; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“The items were constructed on the basis of scales assessing support of the three needs (Grolnick et al., 1997; Reddy et al., 2003; Reeve & Jang, 2006; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Another definition by Skinner and Belmont [60] focuses on more subtle cognitive, behavioral, and affective indicators of student engagement in specific learning tasks.”

“Research by Skinner and colleagues (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner, Wellborn, & Connell, 1990) supports that view.”

“Some studies (e.g., Furrer and Skinner 2003; Skinner and Belmont 1993) suggest that teachers’ involvement seems to be the strongest predictor of students’ academic engagement among all of the other presumably important dimensions of teachers’ behavior; the students of highly involved teachers perceive their teachers n…”

“Seven items were from the Psychologically Controlling Teaching (PCT) scale (Soenens et al., 2012), and two items were from the Teacher As Social Context Questionnaire (TASCQ; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Research has documented that if students developed a sense of relatedness to their teachers, it would translate into pursuing goals valued by teachers, such as to behave appropriately and to learn and achieve (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Wentzel, 1994).”

“The mechanism by which autonomous motivation leads to adaptive educational outcomes is through greater interest, effort and application toward instruction, and, particularly, greater involvement in self-directed study outside of the class (Reeve, 2002; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Skinner and Belmont’s [21] definition of engagement in the educational context can be applied to user experience.”

“As for cognitive engagement, the factors of learning, thinking and problemsolving strategies have been identified (Ainley, 1993; Connell, 1990; Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Guthrie & Wigfield, 1997; Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988; Pintrich & Schrauben, 1992; Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ).”

“Through their interactions with students, teachers challenge and interest students; they afford rich learning opportunities; they provide appropriate support to scaffold student participation (e.g., Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Structure has been defined as the provision of desired information and guidance such that students can successfully achieve various outcomes (Grolnick & Pomerantz, 2009; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Social interaction with other participants in classrooms influences learners’ cognitive and affective characteristics ( Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Sutton & Wheatley, 2003; Wong & Dornbusch, 2000).”

“Furthermore, because classroom engagement is an important contributor to long-term academic achievement (Skinner and Belmont, 1993; Godwin et al., 2016), regular episodes of exceptional classroom engagement over the course of a school year might have a surprisingly large cumulative effect on…”

“Studies have shown that students have the greatest motivation when they perceive a positive correlation with teachers [42,43].”

“Skinner and Belmont (1993) built on this work by looking at predictors of students' engagement, defined in both behavioral and emotional terms.”

“Such a setup of the environment would make clear to children how their actions are connected to outcomes, enhancing their perceived control and competence (Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“For example, to identify the contribution of teacher contingency to students’ perceived autonomy, Skinner and Belmont (1993) identified and measured the construct of teacher involvement.”

“Researchers such as Skinner and Belmont [7] and Reschly and Christenson [9] point out that academic achievement is an established goal that includes emotional, behavioral, and cognitive involvement [8].”

“…mastery goals, teachers can do the following (see Ames, 1984, 1992; Anderman & Anderman, 1999; Bandura, 1986, 1997; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Ellis, 1986; Garner, 1990; Meece, 1991; Nicholls, 1979, 1984; Pervin, 1983; Schunk, 1989a, 1989b, 1990; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Wentzel & Wigfield, 1998): .”

“This finding is in accordance with the literature (Reeve, 1998; Skinner & Belmont, 1993) and might explain and justify the more explicit focus on autonomy support in previous intervention studies (e.g., Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2009; Reeve et al., 2004).”

“For example, the longitudinal study of Skinner and Belmont (1993) showed reciprocal effects of student motivation on teacher behavior.”

“Selfdetermination theorists used the term involvement to refer to teachers’ interest in, emotional support for, and affection toward their students (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Following precedent and recommendations of child development researchers (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), we administered the questionnaire only to students in grades 3, 4, 5, and 6.”

“Other beneficial social resources include school and community contexts and support from significant nonparental adults, such as teachers (Skinner & Belmont, 1993) and mentors (Nettles, 1991).”

“Emotionally, teachers’ respect and care has been connected to students’ enjoyment of their schoolwork (Skinner and Belmont 1993) and development of positive achievement-related values (Wang 2012; Wang and Eccles 2013).”

“Indeed, when students are passive, unmotivated, bored, or openly hostile, teachers tend to respond either by withdrawing their attention or by becoming more demanding (Furrer & Skinner, 2009; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“"community of learners" ( Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ), and feelings of relatedness to others in the”