Cited by 3,428Education, Achievement, and GiftednessMotivation and Self-Concept in SportsEarly Childhood Education and Development

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Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.

Skinner, Ellen A., Belmont, Michael J.·1993·Journal of Educational Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-0663.85.4.571

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Abstract

On the basis of a new model of motivation, we examined the effects of 3 dimensions of teacher (n = 14) behavior (involvement, structure, and autonomy support) on 144 children's (Grades 3-5) behavioral and emotional engagement across a school year. Correlational and path analyses revealed that teacher involvement was central to children's experiences in the classroom and that teacher provision of both autonomy support and optimal structure predicted children's motivation across the school year. Reciprocal effects of student motivation on teacher behavior were also found. Students who showed higher initial behavioral engagement received subsequently more of all 3 teacher behaviors. These findings suggest that students who are behaviorally disengaged receive teacher responses that should further undermine their motivation. The importance of the student-teacher relationship, especially interpersonal involvement, in optimizing student motivation is highlighted. What are the factors that motivate children to learn? Educators and parents value motivation in school for its own sake as well as for its long-term contribution to children's learning and self-esteem. Highly motivated children are easy to identify: They are enthusiastic, interested, involved, and curious; they try hard and persist; and they actively cope with challenges and setbacks. These are the children who should stay in school longer, learn more, feel better about themselves, and continue their education after high school. Recent research has borne this out (Ames & Ames, 1984, 1985; Pintrich, 1991; Stipek, 1988). Although motivated students are easy to recognize, they are difficult to find. Research shows that across the preschool to high school years, children's intrinsic motivation decreases and they feel increasingly alienated from learning (Harter, 1981). Why is it so difficult to optimize student motivation? Decades of psychological and educational research

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Mercer, S. (2018) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444817000258 · Cited by 142
“The second key reason why it is vital to investigate teacher psychology is because of the connection between teacher and learner psychologies, which are linked through processes of contagion (Skinner & Belmont 1993; Dresel & Hall 2013; Frenzel & Stephens 2013).”
Background
Think and pair before share: Effects of collaboration on students' in-class participation
Mundelsee, L., & Jurkowski, S. (2021) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102015 · Cited by 116
Bridges and Barriers
McHugh, R. M., Horner, C. G., Colditz, J. B., & Wallace, T. L. (2012) · Urban Education · doi:10.1177/0042085912451585 · Cited by 150
“Likewise, relatedness between students and their teachers has been demonstrated to predict students’ emotional and behavioral engagement (see for example Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”
Background
Testing a developmental–ecological model of student engagement: a multilevel latent growth curve analysis
You, S., & Sharkey, J. D. (2009) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410903206815 · Cited by 115
“In another study, high school students who had close relationships with their teachers had more positive attitudes in the classroom and views of school (Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ).”
Background
Motivating Students to Behave in Socially Competent Ways
Wentzel, K. R. (2003) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4204_9 · Cited by 115
“Second, teachers who establish contexts similar to those provided by effective parents are more likely to promote students’ adoption and pursuit of goals they value than teachers who do not establish such contexts (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Wentzel, 2002a).”
Background
Understanding engagement: Science demonstrations and emotional energy
Milne, C. E., & Otieno, T. (2007) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.20203 · Cited by 115
“Skinner and Belmont (1993) in their study of suburban and rural elementary students identified teacher actions with respect to structure, autonomy support (agency), and involvement as central to the development of student engagement.”
BackgroundInfluential
School Identification
Voelkl, K. E. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_9 · Cited by 115
Teacher behavior as a mediator of the relationship between teacher judgment and students' motivation and emotion
Urhahne, D. (2015) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2014.09.006 · Cited by 115
Student Perceptions of Autonomy-Supportive Instructional Interactions in the Middle Grades
Wallace, T. L., & Sung, H. C. (2016) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2016.1182885 · Cited by 118
“Structure in a classroom identifies the quality and quantity of information provided to students about expectations and strategies for success (Jang, Reeve, & Deci, 2010; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”
Background
Learning Mechanics and Game Mechanics Under the Perspective of Self-Determination Theory to Foster Motivation in Digital Game Based Learning
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“…degree of engagement and motivation felt by learners: “various studies of elementary and high school students (e.g., Hardre & Reeve, 2003; Jang, Reeve, & Deci, 2007; Skinner & Belmont, 1993) have shown that teachers’ autonomy support is related to students’ autonomous motivation and engagement”.”
Background
Self-determination theory based instructional interventions and motivational regulations in organized physical activity: A systematic review and multivariate meta-analysis
Manninen, M., Dishman, R. K., Hwang, Y., Magrum, E., Deng, Y., & Yli-Piipari, S. R. (2022) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2022.102248 · Cited by 200
A Common Measurement System for K-12 STEM education: Adopting an educational evaluation methodology that elevates theoretical foundations and systems thinking
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Self-citation
A model of mastery motivation for at-risk preschoolers.
Turner, L. A., & Johnson, B. (2003) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.3.495 · Cited by 121
Teacher–Student Interaction
Englehart, J. M. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-73317-3_44 · Cited by 113
The role of perceived classroom goal structures, self-efficacy, and engagement in student science achievement
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“Emotional engagement concerns the positive and negative feelings students have about learning, such as their enjoyment, curiosity, anxiety, or boredom (Connell and Wellborn 1991; Skinner and Belmont 1993).”
Background
Understanding emotional and social intelligence among English language teachers
Gkonou, C., & Mercer, S. (2017) · Open Access at Essex (University of Essex) · Cited by 112
How E-Learning Environmental Stimuli Influence Determinates of Learning Engagement in the Context of COVID-19? SOR Model Perspective
Yang, J., Peng, M. Y., Wong, S.-H., & Chong, W.-L. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.584976 · Cited by 126
Gamification during Covid-19: Promoting active learning and motivation in higher education
Rincón-Flores, E. G., & Santos-Guevara, B. N. (2021) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.7157 · Cited by 111
“The reward system also led to positive feelings about achievement (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Lefers & Birkenkrahe, 2016; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), generating behavioural, cognitive, and emotional commitment (Fredricks et al., 2004).”
Background
Parental Autonomy Support in Two Cultures: The Moderating Effects of Adolescents’ Self-Construals
Marbell-Pierre, K. N., Grolnick, W. S., Stewart, A. L., & Raftery-Helmer, J. N. (2019) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12947 · Cited by 110
“…key aspects of motivation that have been related to achievement and adjustment and have been included in other studies of autonomy support (e.g., Wang et al., 2007), including academic engagement (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), autonomous motivation (Ryan & Connell, 1989), and self-worth (Harter, 1982).”
Background
The different relationships between engagement and outcomes across participant subgroups in Massive Open Online Courses
Li, Q., & Baker, R. B. (2018) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.08.005 · Cited by 124
Impact of mental disorders on attendance at school
Lawrence, D. M., Dawson, V., Houghton, S. J., Goodsell, B., & Sawyer, M. G. (2019) · Australian Journal of Education · doi:10.1177/0004944118823576 · Cited by 135
Patterns of Young Children's Motivation for Science and Teacher-Child Relationships
Patrick, H., Mantzicopoulos, P. Y., Samarapungavan, A., & French, B. F. (2008) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.3200/jexe.76.2.121-144 · Cited by 110
“We do not suggest that the children’s early motivational problems were caused simply by problematic interactions with their teacher; interactions within relationships affect teachers and children bidirectionally ( Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ).”
Background
Administrative pressures and teachers' interpersonal behaviour in the classroom
Pelletier, L. G., & Sharp, E. C. (2009) · Theory and Research in Education · doi:10.1177/1477878509104322 · Cited by 110
“…that students were autonomously motivated they were more autonomy supportive and less controlling (Pelletier and Vallerand, 1996; Skinner and Belmont, 1993), and that the impact of students’ motivation on teachers’ interpersonal behaviors was actually mediated by teachers’ motivation…”
Background
Students’ evocative impact on teacher instruction and teacher–child relationships
Nurmi, J., & Kiuru, N. H. (2015) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025415592514 · Cited by 131
“For example, Skinner and Belmont (1993) conceptualized and operationalized teacher behaviour in a classroom in terms of involvement, structure and autonomy support, as reported by both teachers and students.”
Background
Predicting students' cognitive learning activity and intrinsic learning motivation: How powerful are teacher statements, student profiles, and gender?
Jurik, V., Gröschner, A., & Seidel, T. (2014) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.01.005 · Cited by 121
Teacher–student interpersonal relationships do change and affect academic motivation: A multilevel growth curve modelling
Maulana, R., Opdenakker, M., & Bosker, R. (2013) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12031 · Cited by 135
Dynamics of need-supportive and need-thwarting teaching behavior: the bidirectional relationship with student engagement and disengagement in the beginning of a lesson
den Berghe, L. V., Cardon, G., Tallir, I., Kirk, D., & Haerens, L. L. (2016) · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/17408989.2015.1115008 · Cited by 121
“Based on the results of previous studies (Skinner and Belmont 1993; Koka 2013), it was hypothesized that student engagement would be positively related to need support, while negative relationships with need-thwarting teaching behaviors were expected.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Black adolescents' relationships with natural mentors: Associations with academic engagement via social and emotional development.
Hurd, N. M., & Sellers, R. M. (2013) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031095 · Cited by 120
Effects of Teacher Autonomy Support and Students' Autonomous Motivation on Learning in Physical Education
Shen, B., McCaughtry, N., Martin, J. J., & FAHLMAN, M. M. (2009) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2009.10599528 · Cited by 125
“Student motivation thrives under conditions in which teachers find ways to provide optimal instruction structure and high autonomy support (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”
Background

Authors: Skinner, E. A., & Belmont, M. J.
Affiliations: Portland State University (US)
ORCID: Skinner, Ellen A.
Venue: Journal of Educational Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1993-12
Volume: 85
Issue: 4
Pages: 571-581
ISSN: 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
1939-2176
DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.85.4.571
OpenAlex: W2165027149
Cited by: 3,428
References: 37
Citations by year: 2026: 115 · 2025: 153 · 2024: 181 · 2023: 290 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 212 · 2020: 227 · 2019: 197 · 2018: 164 · 2017: 175 · 2016: 171 · 2015: 176 · 2014: 196 · 2013: 162 · 2012: 157
FWCI: 9.14
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Keywords: student motivation, teacher behavior, behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, teacher participation, autonomy support, classroom structure, reciprocal effects, teacher-student relationship, intrinsic motivation, elementary school students

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Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.

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