Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.

“A comprehensive model suggested by Keller (1983) includes four basic strategies: attention focusing, relevance, confidence building, and satisfaction.”

“2 In these parallel research fields, researchers have conceptualised the emotional, organisational and cognitive domains of teaching using slightly different terminology: autonomy support, structure and teacher involvement (Skinner and Belmont 1993); emotional support, classroom organisation and instructional support…”

“In this study, students voiced their strong dislike of unchallenging content and how this can cause disruptive behaviour (Mr Lee) and hence ‘disaffection’ (Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ).”

“Empirical research has confirmed that students with structured teachers perform better than students with unstructured teachers (Brophy, 2006; Evertson and Weinstein, 2006) and demonstrate more classroom engagement (Skinner and Belmont, 1993; Tucker et al., 2002).”

“Secondly, emotional engagement comprises both positive (curiosity, enjoyment, etc.) and negative feelings (anger, boredom, etc.) that students experience during learning (Skinner and Belmont 1993).”

“Participation, as the fundamental factor in learners’ learning behavioral engagement, mainly refers to the efforts and time learners devoted to, reflecting whether learners agreed with the school rules and teachers’ requirements (Fredricks et al., 2004; Nguyen et al., 2018; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“…interest in a range of educationally orientated activities’ (Trowler & Trowler, 2010, p. 7); a high ‘quality of effort’ during learning (Pace, 1980, p. 12); regular attendance at classes; persistence, enthusiasm during learning and participation in extra-curricular events (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“For example, autonomy support has been described as the provision of decision making and latitude, and making clear the relevance of the learning (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), as giving justification for the value of learning in a non-coercive environment (Reeve, Bolt, & Cai, 1999), and as giving…”

“Through interaction with the environment, each child creates influence students’ attitudes and motivation [8]), teachers’ professional development (teachers’ preparation and engage-mentinSTEMisdeterminantofstudents’achievementinthis area [9]) and guidance for pupils (the perception of classroom…”

“…autonomy support, students often experience an enhanced sense of competence (Guay et al., 2001; Jang et al., 2016; Lochbaum & Jean-Noel, 2016; Okada, 2023), a feeling typically cultivated through the provision of structure (Jang et al., 2010; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).”

“The framework is grounded in Ellen Skinner’s influential “Context → Self → Action → Outcomes” self-system model (Skinner & Belmont, 1993, see their Fig.”

“…among children from third grade upward and has consistently shown good psychometric properties, such as good stability; internal consistency; and factorial, convergent, and criterion validity (e.g., Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner et al., 1998, 2008; Wellborn, 1991).”

“…report higher instances of withdrawal behaviors when their basic psychological needs were not met by their instructors (Klem & Connell, 2004; Skinner & Belmont, 1993) and that students’ perceived their instructors did not fulfill these needs when they did not offer students academic support…”

“, Spooren, Mortelmans, and Denekens 2007; Stalnaker and Remmers 1928; Staufenbiel 2000), because researchers have shared the assumption that students who are initially more interested in the subject of a course are probably more motivated (Marsh 1982) and therefore easier to teach (Skinner and Belmont 1993) than stude…”

“Teachers’ ability to engage students’ interest and participation in their schooling in general (Christenson et al., 2012; Klem and Connell, 2004; Skinner and Belmont, 1993) is regarded as essential for a sustained academic achievement (Christenson et al.”

“We used 4 items from the Behavioral Engagement subscale of the Engagement vs. Disaffection with Learning Scale (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), including “I try hard to focus in class” and “In class, I do just enough to get by” (reverse scored).”

“Cognitive engagement focuses on learners’ intentional thoughts dedicated to learning, such as attentional investment, processing intensity, or self-regulated learning or strategies (Fredricks, Filsecker, and Lawson 2016; Reeve and Tseng 2011; Skinner and Belmont 1993).”

“More importantly, students that are engaged select tasks at the limit of their competencies, initiate action when given the opportunity, and shows positive emotions including enthusiasm, optimism, curiosity, and interest (Kuh et al., 2008; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“, 2006), in part because they can lack sufficient structure necessary to support student autonomy (Skinner and Belmont, 1993), and in part because they can foster behavioural rather than cognitive engagement (Byers, 2002).”

“Students’ need for competence is satisfied when they know how to effectively manage their learning and achieve their learning-related outcomes (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Wang & Eccles, 2013).”

“The present review attends to this idea from an instruction-motivation perspective, but research has shown this to be the case in cognate aspects of classroom life (e.g., teacher-student relationships and motivation; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“…support and engagement in the math and sciences have paid particular attention to the moves teachers make to address comprehension and interest in topics and assignments that many students find challenging (Patrick et al., 2007; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Turner et al., 2002; Turner et al., 1998).”

“…with classroom rules and routines, absence of disruptive behaviors (Finn 1993; Finn et al. 1995; Finn 1997), effort, persistence, attention, and concentration on tasks, and asking questions and contributing to class discussions (Finn et al. 1995; Birch and Ladd 1997; Skinner and Belmont 1993).”

“…and extend a caring and supportive relationship, are more likely to satisfy students’ needs for relatedness, competence, and autonomy and this is associated with more engagement in the classroom, putting forth more effort, and also feeling more positive affect (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Skinner and Belmont (1993) explained it as students ’ continuous behavior involvement accompanied by positive learning state in learning activities.”

“Prior research suggests that instructors’ identities and student-teacher relationships can impact students’ attitudes, motivation and even their academic outcomes [3].”

“Gesture refers to the expression made by humanoid robots to convey a message or emotion, such as hand movements (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Teachers can also design and implement a highly controlling setting if they seem disorganized and are emotionally closed and cold (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“…exemplifying the bidirectional nature of interactions (Fiedler, 1975; Howes & James, 2002; Klein, 1971; Pianta & Walsh, 1996), there have been few observational studies in classrooms that take these bidirectional relations into account (Arnold, McWilliams, & Arnold, 1998; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Emotional engagement with school encompasses affective reactions to the school environment and to the school activities (e.g., Fredricks, et al., 2004; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Voelkl, 1997).”

“First, previous research connecting attachment functioning to student academic life typically has related attachment security to general academic health, adjustment to school, and global relationships with multiple teachers/instructors (Davis, 2003; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Indeed, the effects of teacher role modeling have been studied extensively within educational psychology (30).”

“More recently, studies (Reeve, Jang, Carrell, Jeon, & Barsh, 2004; Reinboth, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2004; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner & Edge, 2002; Tessier, Sarrazin, & Ntoumanis, 2010) have expanded upon this unidimensional continuum by examining characteristics of the environment that are likely…”

“Teacher support is one of the most important conditions for promoting students’ academic self-concept, learning interest and learning engagement (Hughes et al., 2008; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), especially for primary school students, who are in the critical period of habitual progress.”

“For example, Skinner and Belmont (1993) observed that behaviorally disengaged students often receive teacher response that can further undermine their motivation.”

“Autonomy support is the amount of freedom provided to students so that they can control their learning (Skinner and Belmont 1993).”

“Just as structure was reported in previous classroom‑based studies to promote different dimensions of student engagement (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Wang & Eccles, 2013), it was found in this study that the extent to which the course organisation provided students with clear instructions on the use…”

“Social and learning behaviour in classroom Skinner and Belmont (1993) have suggested that ‘[e]ngagement includes both behavioural and emotional components’ (p. 572).”

“Engagement in this project is defined as students’ willingness to participate in learning activities with positive emotion (Chapman, 2003; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Involvement describes how well students get along with their teachers and peers; its antithesis is rejection or neglect (Skinner and Belmont, 1993).”

“…and desirable learning outcomes (e.g., grades and standardized tests) (Carini, Kuh, & Klein, 2006; Fredricks et al., 2004), motivation to learn (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), critical thinking (Carini et al., 2006), and persistence (Kuh, Cruce, Shoup, Kinzie, & Gonyea, 2008), but negatively with…”

“Pupils who enjoy supportive relationships with teachers are expected to gain confidence in their ability and to be more motivated to participate in classroom activities (Birch & Ladd, 1997 ; Hughes & Kwok, 2006 ; Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ).”

“Lastly, when being cold, teachers are unfriendly or even reject or exclude students [51].”

“Two reasons led to the evaluation of these variables: first, because they are closely related to teachers’ instructional behaviours (e.g. Assor et al., 2002; Christenson et al., 2012; Mouratidis et al., 2008; Skinner and Belmont, 1993; Van den Berghe et al., 2016).”

“…emotional engagement in the classroom, it is further defined as emotional learning engagement (ELE), which specifically refers to students’ emotional responses to the learning process and classroom environment, including interest and belonging (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Hence, engagement can be conceptualized as being both shaped by personal and social-contextual factors (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Furrer, 2010; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Other types of indicators could be used to measure disengagement, whether emotional such as negative emotions like boredom, lack of interest, frustration and anger, sadness, and anxiety ([30, 31]), or behavioural such as being passive, giving up, withdrawal, distraction, and burnout [29], and finally Cognitive disenga…”

“Not only is a perception of a unidirectional in uence incorrect—children’s attitudes and performance also act as important in uences upon teachers (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; this paper)—but the extent to which children are prepared to accept adults’ messages depends substantially upon consensual…”

“Skinner and Belmont (1993) found that a child’s perceptions of teachers’ involvement can predict the successive engagement in class to a point that when children experience teachers as warm and affectionate, children feel happier and more enthusiastic in classes.”

“…and provision of structure (i.e., establishing a clear set of justified rules, behaving in a consistent way, and providing help and support) are positively related to students’ behavioral, cognitive and emotional engagement (Hospel & Galand, 2016; Janget al., 2010; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“…di Amerika dengan menelitinya secara empiris di bawah konsep keterlibatan pada sekolah (school engagement) (misalnya: Skinner, et al., 1990; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Greenwood, 1991,1996; Steinberg, et al., 1992; Wentzel, 1993; Connell, et al., 1994; Smerdon, 1999; DiPerna & Elliott, 2000;…”

“Engagement models typically range from two (Skinner and Belmont 1993) to four or more components (e.g. Reeve and Tseng 2011).”