Guidance during mathematical problem solving.
Open accessAbstract
Experiments using circle geometry problems were carried out to investigate the consequences of presenting various forms of guidance to problem solvers.As had been suggested from previous research, having students study worked examples, under many circumstances, resulted in superior learning compared to active problem solving.It has been hypothesized that the guidance provided by worked examples directs attention appropriately and reduces cognitive load compared to that imposed by a means-ends strategy used by most novice problem solvers.Guidance in turn, may assist solvers in acquiring problem solving schemas.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The split-attention effect was first reported by Tarmizi and Sweller (1988).
“The split-attention effect stems from research on worked examples and was first reported by Tarmizi and Sweller (1988).”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Tarmizi and Sweller (1988)
The split-attention effect can be prevented by physically integrating the diagram and solution statements, making mental integration superfluous and reinstating the positive effects of worked examples.
“This split-attention effect can be prevented by physically integrating the diagram and the solution statements, making mental integration superfluous and reinstating the positive effects of worked examples.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Tarmizi and Sweller (1988)
Design of high-quality worked examples is challenging, particularly if they require integration of multiple information sources, which could lead to higher extraneous cognitive load.
“Second, the design of high-quality worked examples is challenging, particularly if these require integration of multiple information sources, which could lead to a higher extraneous cognitive load (Sweller et al., 1990, 1998; Tarmizi & Sweller, 1988; Ward & Sweller, 1990).”
From Does difficulty moderate learning? A comparative analysis of the desirable difficulties framework and cognitive load theory (2025) · cites this paper as Tarmizi & Sweller, 1988
The worked-example effect is not obtainable when the worked examples are themselves structured in a manner that imposes a heavy cognitive load.
“First, it is not obtainable when the worked examples are themselves structured in a manner that imposes a heavy cognitive load.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Tarmizi & Sweller, 1988
Cites
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.2.343 · Cited by 17,469 · see citing works
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048 · see citing works
Self-citationEricsson (1993) · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.87.3.215 · Cited by 4,539 · see citing works
Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. (1973) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90004-2 · Cited by 4,479 · see citing works
Cognitive Skills and Their Acquisition
Anderson, J. R. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203728178 · Cited by 2,926 · see citing works
Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J. (1980) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(80)90013-4 · Cited by 2,552 · see citing works
Expert and Novice Performance in Solving Physics Problems
Larkin, J., McDermott, J. P., Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1980) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.208.4450.1335 · Cited by 2,112 · see citing works
Kintsch, W. (1977) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,051 · see citing works
Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence
Sternberg, R. J. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315808246 · Cited by 1,771 · see citing works
Michelene, T. H., Glaser, R. A., & Rees, E. T. (1981) · Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) · Cited by 1,533 · see citing works
Brook, C. V., & Groot, A. D. D. (1966) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421155 · Cited by 1,284 · see citing works
The Use of Worked Examples as a Substitute for Problem Solving in Learning Algebra
Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0201_3 · Cited by 1,214 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive Processes in Comprehension
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315798851 · Cited by 1,150 · see citing works
Johnson, D. M., & Sternberg, R. J. (1978) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421839 · Cited by 999 · see citing works
A Framework For Representing Knowledge
Minsky, M. (1979) · De Gruyter eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783110858778-003 · Cited by 867 · see citing works
Why are some problems hard? Evidence from Tower of Hanoi
Kotovsky, K., Hayes, J. R., & Simon, H. A. (1985) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(85)90009-x · Cited by 722 · see citing works
Flowing Waters or Teeming Crowds: Mental Models of Electricity
Gentner, D., & Gentner, D. R. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315802725-10 · Cited by 709 · see citing works
Knowledge structures and memory development.
Michelene, T. H. (1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 689 · see citing works
Effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer.
Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.79.4.347 · Cited by 688 · see citing works
Self-citationSiegler, R. S. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203763087 · Cited by 678 · see citing works
Acquisition of domain-related information in relation to high and low domain knowledge
Chiesi, H. L., Spilich, G. J., & Voss, J. F. (1979) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(79)90146-4 · Cited by 635 · see citing works
Models of Competence in Solving Physics Problems*
Larkin, J. H., McDermott, J. P., Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1980) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0404_1 · Cited by 527 · see citing works
Text processing of domain-related information for individuals with high and low domain knowledge
Spilich, G. J., Vesonder, G., Chiesi, H. L., & Voss, J. F. (1979) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(79)90155-5 · Cited by 515 · see citing works
Chunking in recall of symbolic drawings
Egan, D. E., & Schwartz, B. J. (1979) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197595 · Cited by 482 · see citing works
Structuring Effective Worked Examples
Ward, M., & Sweller, J. (1990) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0701_1 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Self-citationProblem Solving and Education: Issues in Teaching and Research
Tuma, D. T., & Reif, F. (1980) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 385 · see citing works
The understanding process: Problem isomorphs
Simon, H. A., & Hayes, J. R. (1976) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(76)90022-0 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Individual Differences in Solving Physics Problems (1978)
Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1978) · Cited by 369 · see citing works
The Processes Involved in Designing Software.
Atwood, M. E., Jeffries, R., Turner, A. A., & Polson, P. G. (1980) · Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) · Cited by 360 · see citing works
Short-term memory limitations in children: Capacity or processing deficits?
Michelene, T. H. (1976) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03213219 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
Development of expertise in mathematical problem solving.
Sweller, J., Mawer, R. F., & Ward, M. R. (1983) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.112.4.639 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Self-citationChanges in conceptual structure with expertise: Differences between real-world experts and novices.
Murphy, G. L., & Wright, J. C. (1984) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.10.1.144 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
Problem solving and rule induction: A unified view.
Simon, H. A., & Lea, G. (1974) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 231 · see citing works
What do students learn while solving mathematics problems?
Owen, E., & Sweller, J. (1985) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.77.3.272 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Self-citationComponents of skill in bridge.
Charness, N. H. (1979) · Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie · doi:10.1037/h0081698 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Saegert, S., & Winkel, G. H. (1990) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.41.020190.002301 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Effects of goal specificity on means–ends analysis and learning.
Sweller, J., & Levine, M. (1982) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.8.5.463 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Self-citationUnderstanding written problem instructions.
Hayes, J. R., & Simon, H. A. (1974) · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Milgram, S., & Jodelet, D. (2014) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315816852-9 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Discrimination of operator schemata in problem solving: Learning from examples
Lewis, M. W., & Anderson, J. R. (1985) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(85)90003-9 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Memory as a function of attention, level of processing, and automatization.
Fisk, A. D., & Schneider, W. (1984) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.10.2.181 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Cognitive Skill: Implications for Spatial Skill in Large-Scale Environments.
Chase, W. G., & Michelene, T. H. (1979) · Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) · Cited by 96 · see citing works
A model of problem solving with incomplete constraint knowledge
Karat, J. (1982) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(82)90018-4 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
A process model for Missionaries-Cannibals and other river-crossing problems
Jeffries, R., Polson, P. G., Razran, L., & Atwood, M. E. (1977) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(77)90015-9 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Individual differences in secondary task performance
Lansman, M., & Hunt, E. B. (1982) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197621 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Natures of Problem-Solving Abilities
Estes, W. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315770314-13 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Control mechanisms in problem solving
Sweller, J. (1983) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197659 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationEffects of subgoal density and location on learning during problem solving.
Mawer, R. F., & Sweller, J. (1982) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.8.3.252 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationA Cognitive Theory of Learning
Levine, M. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003316565 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
THE EFFECT OF TASK COMPLEXITY AND SEQUENCE ON RULE LEARNING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Sweller, J. (1976) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1976.tb01546.x · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationLearning Mathematics from Examples and by Doing
Zhu, X., & Simon, H. A. (1987) · doi:10.21236/ada204495 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Nonlearning: The completeness of the blindness.
Fingerman, P. W., & Levine, M. (1974) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0036096 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Cognitive structures of good and poor novice problem solvers in physics.
de Jong, T., & Ferguson-Hessler, M. G. (1986) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0663.78.4.279 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Einstellung, the sequence effect, and hypothesis theory.
Sweller, J., & Gee, W. (1978) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.4.5.513 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationIdentifying the Relevant Aspects of a Problem Text
Hayes, J. R., WATERMAN, D. A., & Robinson, C. (1977) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0103_4 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1 · Cited by 6,887 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive Architecture and Instructional Design
Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1022193728205 · Cited by 6,023 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design
Sweller, J. (1994) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/0959-4752(94)90003-5 · Cited by 3,801 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction
Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2 · Cited by 2,894 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later
Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5 · Cited by 2,337 · see citing works
Self-citationPaas, F. G. W. C. (1992) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.429 · Cited by 2,150 · see citing works
Kalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_4 · Cited by 1,927 · see citing works
Self-citationWhy Some Material Is Difficult to Learn
Sweller, J., & Chandler, P. (1994) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1203_1 · Cited by 1,455 · see citing works
Self-citationDoes discovery-based instruction enhance learning?
Alfieri, L., Brooks, P. J., Aldrich, N. J., & Tenenbaum, H. R. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021017 · Cited by 1,338 · see citing works
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (1998) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.90.2.312 · Cited by 1,315 · see citing works
Expertise Reversal Effect and Its Implications for Learner-Tailored Instruction
Kalyuga, S. (2007) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-007-9054-3 · Cited by 1,056 · see citing works
“Physically integrated or embedded formats were demonstrated to be an effective alternative to “split-source” instructions (split-attention effect; e.g., Mayer and Gallini 1990; Sweller et al. 1990; Tarmizi and Sweller 1988 ).”
BackgroundReducing cognitive load by mixing auditory and visual presentation modes.
Mousavi, S. Y., Low, R., & Sweller, J. (1995) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.87.2.319 · Cited by 995 · see citing works
Self-citationInstructional control of cognitive load in the training of complex cognitive tasks
Paas, F. G. W. C., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1994) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/bf02213420 · Cited by 968 · see citing works
Cognitive load theory and educational technology
Sweller, J. (2020) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-019-09701-3 · Cited by 911 · see citing works
Self-citationKoedinger, K. R., Corbett, A. T., & Perfetti, C. (2012) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1551-6709.2012.01245.x · Cited by 772 · see citing works
Measurement of Cognitive Load in Instructional Research
Paas, F. G. W. C., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Adam, J. J. (1994) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1994.79.1.419 · Cited by 731 · see citing works
Cognitive load as a factor in the structuring of technical material.
Sweller, J., Chandler, P., Tierney, P., & Cooper, M. (1990) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.119.2.176 · Cited by 629 · see citing works
Self-citationEvidence for Cognitive Load Theory
Sweller, J., & Chandler, P. (1991) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_5 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
Self-citationWhen problem solving is superior to studying worked examples.
Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., Tuovinen, J., & Sweller, J. (2001) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.3.579 · Cited by 548 · see citing works
Self-citationEvolution of human cognitive architecture
Sweller, J. (2003) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(03)01015-6 · Cited by 511 · see citing works
Self-citationToward an Instructionally Oriented Theory of Example‐Based Learning
Renkl, A. (2014) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12086 · Cited by 509 · see citing works
Multimedia instructions and cognitive load theory: Effects of modality and cueing
Tabbers, H. K., Martens, R. L., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2004) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709904322848824 · Cited by 478 · see citing works
Sweller, J. (2004) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/b:truc.0000021808.72598.4d · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Self-citationCierniak, G., Scheiter, K., & Gerjets, P. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.020 · Cited by 412 · see citing works
Integrating information: A meta-analysis of the spatial contiguity and temporal contiguity effects
Ginns, P. (2006) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.10.001 · Cited by 403 · see citing works
Learning from Worked-Out Examples: The Effects of Example Variability and Elicited Self-Explanations
Renkl, A., Stark, R., Gruber, H., & Mandl, H. (1998) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1006/ceps.1997.0959 · Cited by 374 · see citing works
The Role of Visual Indicators in Dual Sensory Mode Instruction
Jeung, H., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1997) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/0144341970170307 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Self-citationvan Merriënboer, J. J. G., Jelsma, O., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1992) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02297047 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Marcus, N., Cooper, M., & Sweller, J. (1996) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.1.49 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Self-citationClarke, T., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2005) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504794 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
“Researchers have overcome this impediment to learning by devising strategies that physically integrate the two sources, thus eliminating split attention (see Tarmizi & Sweller, 1988 ).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHow to Optimize Learning From Animated Models: A Review of Guidelines Based on Cognitive Load
Wouters, P., Paas, F., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2008) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654308320320 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Sweller, J. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09817-2 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Self-citationCastro-Alonso, J. C., de Koning, B. B., Fiorella, L., & Paas, F. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09606-9 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Cognitive Load Theory: Historical Development and Relation to Other Theories
Moreno, R., & Park, B. (2010) · Cognitive Load Theory · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.003 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
The worked example effect, the generation effect, and element interactivity.
Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2015) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000018 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Self-citationEysink, T. H. S., de Jong, T., Berthold, K., Kolloffel, B., Opfermann, M., & Wouters, P. (2009) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831209340235 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
External and mental referencing of multiple representations
Bodemer, D., & Faust, U. (2006) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2005.01.005 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
The expertise reversal effect: cognitive load and motivational explanations
Rey, G. D., & Buchwald, F. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied · doi:10.1037/a0022243 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Managing One's Own Cognitive Load when Evidence of Split Attention is Present
Roodenrys, K., Agostinho, S., Roodenrys, S., & Chandler, P. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2889 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Pillay, H. K. (1994) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/bf00892159 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Kablan, Z., & Erden, M. (2008) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2007.07.002 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Two types of redundancy in multimedia learning: a literature review
Trypke, M., Stebner, F., & Wirth, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1148035 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
The Split-Attention Principle in Multimedia Learning
Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2021) · The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.020 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationPyke, W., Lunau, J., & Javadi, A.-H. (2025) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218241308143 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Second, the design of high-quality worked examples is challenging, particularly if these require integration of multiple information sources, which could lead to a higher extraneous cognitive load (Sweller et al., 1990, 1998; Tarmizi & Sweller, 1988; Ward & Sweller, 1990).”
- Authors
- Tarmizi, R. A., & Sweller, J.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- ORCID
- Sweller, John
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 1988-12
- Volume
- 80
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 424-436
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2088730954
- Semantic Scholar
- 96dfa2797b3aff42cc03d93656fb84feca0b9cb3
- Cited by
- 464
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 36
- FWCI
- 4.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney)
- Funders
- NSW Department of Education
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Applied Mathematics › Mathematics Education and Pedagogy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- worked examples, mathematical problem solving, guidance, circle geometry, cognitive load, attention, active problem solving
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
