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Just because you're imaging the brain doesn't mean you can stop using your head: A primer and set of first principles.
Abstract
Developments within the neurosciences, cognitive sciences, and social sciences have contributed to the emergence of social neuroscience. Among the most obvious contemporary developments are brain-imaging procedures such as functional magnetic resonance imaging. The authors outline a set of first principles designed to help make sense of brain-imaging research within the fields of cognitive and social neuroscience. They begin with a principle few would debate--that social cognition, emotion, and behavior involve the brain--but whose implications might not be entirely obvious to those new to the field. The authors conclude that (a). complex aspects of the mind and behavior will benefit from yet a broader collaboration of neuroscientists, cognitive scientists, and social scientists, and (b). social psychologists bring important theoretical, methodological, and statistical expertise to this interdisciplinary enterprise.
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“It is helpful to think of the brain as a substrate that affords cognitive plasticity, and as such is influenced by the behaviors of an individual (Cacioppo et al., 2003; Lerner, 1984).”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Cacioppo et al., 2003
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Nucci, L. P., & Gingo, M. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781444325485.ch16 · Cited by 54
Dumas, F., Huguet, P., & Ayme, E. (2005) · Current psychology letters · doi:10.4000/cpl.456 · Cited by 23
“According to Cacioppo et al. (2003), however, evidence that humans are fundamentally social animals who can exist only in a web of relationships (Cacioppo, Bernston, Sheridan, & McClintock 2000) and that even basic information processes can be modulated by the presence or actions of conspecifics…”
BackgroundSocial Neuroscience and the Soul's Last Stand
Greene, J. (2011) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195316872.003.0018 · Cited by 22
“(Witness the proliferation of scientifically under-motivated brain imaging experiments (Cacioppo et al., 2003).)”
BackgroundIntroduction to the special section on social neuroscience: promise and caveats.
Harmon-Jones, E., & Devine, P. G. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.589 · Cited by 21
Darragh, M., Buniak, L., & Giordano, J. J. (2015) · Philosophy Ethics and Humanities in Medicine · doi:10.1186/s13010-015-0022-0 · Cited by 20
The Emergence of Social Neuroscience as an Academic Discipline
Matusall, S., Kaufmann, I. M., & Christen, M. (2011) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195342161.013.0002 · Cited by 18
“Imaging technologies provide both the means for testing hypotheses and a catalyst for the emergence of new theories, although there are important constraints when using such technologies (Cacioppo et al., 2003 ; Logothetis, 2008 ).”
MethodMedia Violence Effects on Brain Development: What Neuroimaging Has Revealed and What Lies Ahead
Hummer, T. A. (2015) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764215596553 · Cited by 17
“(Cacioppo et al., 2003, p. 652).”
Volk, S., & Köhler, T. (2012) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428112449656 · Cited by 26
“…to have an understanding of the extent to which the source of inference (i.e., the brain activation pattern) could potentially reflect different mental processes and to what degree the different mental processes are relevant for the research question at hand (see also Cacioppo et al., 2003).”
BackgroundOperationalizing the Relation Between Affect and Cognition With the Somatic Transform
MacKinnon, N. J., & Hoey, J. (2021) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/17540739211014946 · Cited by 26
“Commenting on the use of neuroimaging technology such as fMRI to locate cognitive and emotional processes in specific areas of the brain, Cacioppo et al. (2003) caution against equating “the beauty of a brain image” with “its psychological significance” (2003, p. 657), calling the idea of a close…”
Social Neuroscience and Public Policy on Intergroup Relations: A Hegelian Analysis
Kang, S. K., Inzlicht, M., & Derks, B. (2010) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2010.01664.x · Cited by 15
“statistical and interpretational standards as behavioral data (Cacioppo et al., 2003; Dovidio et al., 2008).”
BackgroundDemidenko, M. I., Ip, K., Kelly, D. P., Constante, K., Goetschius, L. G., & Keating, D. (2020) · Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior · doi:10.31234/osf.io/vhpw8 · Cited by 14
The meaning of group differences in cognitive test performance
Grant, P. M., Best, M. W., & Beck, A. T. (2019) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.20645 · Cited by 15
Niehuis, S., Reifman, A. S., Al‐Khalil, K., Oldham, C. R., Fang, D., O’Boyle, M. W., & Davis, T. H. (2019) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12272 · Cited by 16
Understanding the Nature, Measurement, and Utility of Implicit Intergroup Biases
Yogeeswaran, K., Devos, T., & Nash, K. A. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316161579.011 · Cited by 18
Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations
Peterson, S., Reina, C., Waldman, D., & Becker, W. (2015) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1746-979120150000011002 · Cited by 14
Sexual arousal and response — the psychosomatic circle
Bancroft, J. (2009) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-05161-6.00004-5 · Cited by 16
Demidenko, M. I., Weigard, A. S., Ganesan, K., Jang, H., Jahn, A., Huntley, E. D., & Keating, D. P. (2021) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.2093 · Cited by 18
“…argued that the standard approaches in taskbased fMRI that utilize the technique of subtracting conditions are fundamentally flawed in achieving the isolation of the neural substrates of specific mental functions (for discussion, see: Cacioppo et al., 2003; Caplan, 2007; Price & Friston, 2005).”
MethodFunctional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): An Invaluable Tool in Translational Neuroscience
Whitten, L. (2012) · doi:10.3768/rtipress.2012.op.0010.1212 · Cited by 20
“Although some argue that attempts to localize psychological function via functional neuroimaging are misguided (Miller, 2010), a more widely accepted caveat about fMRI is that correlations of brain activity patterns with behavior does not prove causality (Cacioppo et al., 2003; Beck, 2010).”
BackgroundIn Defense of Brain Mapping in Social and Affective Neuroscience
Cunningham, W. A. (2010) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2010.28.6.717 · Cited by 10
“…as good as the original inference that established the agreed upon psychological process that the brain region is supposed to be involved in.1 As Cacioppo et al. (2003) noted, there is rarely a 1:1 mapping between a particular psychological state (Ψ) and an accompanying physiological state (Φ).”
BackgroundTransformational Leadership and Neurofeedback: The Medical Perspective of Neuroleadership
Edison, R. E., Juhro, S. M., Aulia, A. F., & Widiasih, P. A. (2019) · International Journal of Organizational Leadership · doi:10.33844/ijol.2019.60317 · Cited by 16
“Various literature showed that transformational leadership behaviors had to do with the brain’s neurological activities (Cacioppo et al., 2003).”
BackgroundDavis, S. W., Beynel, L., Neacsiu, A. D., Luber, B. M., Bernhardt, E. R., Lisanby, S. H., & Strauman, T. J. (2023) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2023.100382 · Cited by 13
Environmental influences on neural systems of relational complexity
Kalbfleisch, M. L., deBettencourt, M. T., Kopperman, R., Banasiak, M., Roberts, J., & Halavi, M. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00631 · Cited by 12
Exploring Neuroscience: A Guide for Getting Started
Twardosz, S. (2007) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409280701280516 · Cited by 11
“Information about methodology can be acquired from texts (see the Appendix in Kolb & Whishaw, 2006 , for a discussion of the use of animals in research) and articles that discuss the difficulties in interpreting the results of brain imaging studies (eg, Cacioppo et al, 2003 ).”
BackgroundDisorders of vocal emotional expression and comprehension: The aprosodias.
Ross, E. (2021) · Handbook of Clinical Neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822290-4.00005-0 · Cited by 10
Neuro-assessment of leadership training
Fingelkurts, A. A., Fingelkurts, A. A., & Neves, C. F. H. (2019) · Coaching An International Journal of Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/17521882.2019.1619796 · Cited by 20
The Role of Neuroscience Information in Choosing a Personality Test: Not as seductive as expected
Diekmann, J., König, C. J., & Alles, J. (2015) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/ijsa.12099 · Cited by 8
“…localization hypotheses, a deep understanding of the technique is necessary to understand the results, but usually this is not transported through public media, which tends to simplify and sometimes even misinterpret results (Beck, 2010; Cacioppo et al., 2003; Farah, 2005; McCabe & Castel, 2008).”
Brain Imaging and Political Behavior
Friend, J. M., & Thayer, B. A. (2011) · Research in biopolitics · doi:10.1108/s2042-9940(2011)0000009012 · Cited by 11
What was the question? fMRI and inference in psychophysiology.
Lorig, T. (2009) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2009.01.004 · Cited by 9
Self-citationMindfulness: The Bottled Water of the Therapy Industry
Moloney, P. (2016) · Mindfulness in behavioral health · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-44019-4_18 · Cited by 12
Terbeck, S., Chesterman, P., Fischmeister, F., Leodolter, U., & Bauer, H. (2008) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2008.05.011 · Cited by 8
“This experimental paradigm, therefore, successfully evoked isolated differences in the locus of causality dimension by suppression of potential confounds, which is essential for an unambiguous interpretation of imaging data in cognitive neuroscience research (Cacioppo et al., 2003; Kok et al., 2006).”
From the Mind to the Feet: Assessing the Perception-to Intent-to-Action Dynamic
Kuznar, L., Astorino-Courtois, A., & Canna, S. (2011) · doi:10.21236/ada543679 · Cited by 7
Neuroimaging Modalities and Brain Technologies in the Context of Organizational Neuroscience
Balthazard, P. A., & Thatcher, R. W. (2015) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1479-357120150000007003 · Cited by 9
REFLECTIONS ON SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE
Ito, T. (2010) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2010.28.6.686 · Cited by 6
“…these considerations in mind when interpreting the meaning of overlapping brain activation associated with different psychological phenomena [see Cacioppo et al. (2003) and Cacioppo & Tassinary (1990) for discussions of several relevant inferential issues], it is not unreasonable to use the…”
BackgroundVincent, D. J., & Hurd, M. W. (2005) · Neurosurgical FOCUS · doi:10.3171/foc.2005.19.4.5 · Cited by 7
When Institutions Induce Trust: Insights from EEG and Timed-Response ExperimentsPreprint
Boudreau, C., Seana Coulson, A., & McCubbins, M. D. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1301770 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., Lorig, T. S., Norris, C. J., Rickett, E., & Nusbaum, H.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Washington and Lee University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2003
- Volume
- 85
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 650-661
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2166218265
- Cited by
- 169
- References
- 100
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 4.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Action Observation and Synchronization
- Social Sciences › Education › Undergraduate Neuroscience Education and Research
- Keywords
- social neuroscience, neuroimaging, functional MRI, social cognition, emotions, behavior, interdisciplinary collaboration, social psychology, cognitive neuroscience, first principles
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Brain, Cognition, Hemodynamics, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Social Behavior
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