The DOI matches its Crossref record; 246 of the 249 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
Abstract
It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“These differences likely reflect Americans’ tendency to perceive the self in a more positive light than East Asians do (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999), and that participants likely used their cultural group as a reference (Heine, Lehman, Peng, & Greenholtz, 2002).”
From Culture and Healthy Eating: The Role of Independence and Interdependence in the United States and Japan (2016) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“norm-fulfillment may not affect self-esteem in Asia (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; but see Kobayashi & Brown, 2003;Kurman, 2003;Sedikides et al., 2005).”
From Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem. (2015) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“It is universally adaptive to be viewed as good and worthy of high regard in one's culture”
From Implications of an Emerging Integration of Universal and Culturally Specific Psychologies (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“Members of collectivist cultures may thus be less motivated to protect self-integrity because their culture places less emphasis on esteeming the self (Heine et al., 1999).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“In individualist cultures (such as the US), the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures (such as in East Asia), the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
Citations
Cites
Society and the Adolescent Self-Image
Rosenberg, M. (1965) · doi:10.1515/9781400876136 · Cited by 30,126
James, W. (1891) · Personality Culture Society · doi:10.1037/11059-000 · Cited by 25,876
The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.117.3.497 · Cited by 23,245
Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.98.2.224 · Cited by 21,995
Self-citationSelf-efficacy mechanism in human agency
Bandura, A. (1982) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.37.2.122 · Cited by 15,975
Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values.
Sorge, A. M., & Hofstede, G. (1983) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2393017 · Cited by 15,195
The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2004) · Political Psychology · doi:10.4324/9780203505984-16 · Cited by 13,467
The Handbook of Social Psychology
Gravatt, A. E., Lindzey, G. E., & Aronson, F. (1969) · The Family Coordinator · doi:10.2307/582242 · Cited by 12,518
Axford, N. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315258324-16 · Cited by 11,329
Psychology of intergroup relations
Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (1986) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 10,626
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 801–900 of 2,135
Exploring self-perceived communication competence in foreign language learning
Lockley, T. (2013) · Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.14746/ssllt.2013.3.2.3 · Cited by 36
“There can be deep misunderstandings between people of differing self-views (Heine et al., 1999) and it seems unlikely that these would not manifest themselves in FLL.”
BackgroundPerceiving low self‐esteem in close others impedes capitalization and undermines the relationship
MacGregor, J. C. D., Fitzsimons, G. M., & Holmes, J. G. (2013) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12008 · Cited by 30
Michael Shengtao, W. U., Schmitt, M., Zhou, C., et al. (2014) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-014-0212-8 · Cited by 30
Eslami, Z. R., & Yang, X. (2018) · Discourse Context & Media · doi:10.1016/j.dcm.2018.04.006 · Cited by 30
Overconfidence in infection control proficiency
Bushuven, S., Juenger, J., Moeltner, A., & Dettenkofer, M. (2018) · American Journal of Infection Control · doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2018.10.022 · Cited by 30
Ge, X. (2020) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2020.104034 · Cited by 35
Developing selves are meaning-making selves: Recouping the social in self-development
Miller, P. J., & Mangelsdorf, S. C. (2005) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cd.137 · Cited by 34
Heine, S. J., Kitayama, S., & Hamamura, T. (2007) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-839x.2007.00226.x · Cited by 30
Self-citationMcGloin, R., Hull, K. S., & Christensen, J. L. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.022 · Cited by 29
Ogihara, Y., Uchida, Y., & Kusumi, T. (2016) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244016666606 · Cited by 29
Gürbüz, S., Costigan, R. D., & Teke, K. (2018) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-018-9923-6 · Cited by 31
“Japanese tend to be more self-critical than North Americans, implying that the need to Bpossess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views^ is not a universal motivation (Heine et al. 1999: 766).”
BackgroundInfluentialGoal Pursuit in the Context of Culture
Oettingen, G., Sevincer, A. T., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-373694-9.00009-x · Cited by 33
Communication Ambivalence Toward Elders: Data from North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the U.S.A.
McCann, R. M., Cargile, A. C., Giles, H., & Bui, C. T. (2004) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology · doi:10.1023/b:jccg.0000044685.45304.ca · Cited by 30
“For example, the Japanese have been found to habitually define themselves as incomplete (Doi, 1973) which, in turn, may generalize to criticisms of others (Kitayama, Karasawa, Heine, Lehman & Markus, 1999), one’s institutions (De Vos, 1985), and even one’s country (e.g., Lipset, 1996) (for review, see Heine, Lehman, M…”
BackgroundAsian social psychology: Achievements, threats, and opportunities
Leung, K. Y. (2007) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-839x.2006.00205.x · Cited by 30
Hornsey, M. J., & Jetten, J. (2005) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/13576500444000236 · Cited by 30
When Ideals Are Too "Far Off": Physical Self-Ideal Discrepancy and Body Dissatisfaction in Japan
Kowner, R. (2004) · Genetic Social and General Psychology Monographs · doi:10.3200/mono.130.4.333-364 · Cited by 30
“This need seems better served by self-improvement than self-enhancement (Heine et al., 1999; Kitayama et al., 1997).”
BackgroundAttentional Focus and the Dynamics of Dual Identity Integration
Mok, A., & Morris, M. W. (2012) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550611432769 · Cited by 28
The Role of Regulatory Fit in Framing Effective Negative Feedback Across Cultures
Kung, F. Y. H., Kim, Y.-H., Yang, D. Y. ‐., & Cheng, S. Y. Y. (2016) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022116638172 · Cited by 28
Emotional labor in hospitality: Positive affective displays in service encounters
Li, J., Canziani, B. F., & Barbieri, C. (2016) · Tourism and Hospitality Research · doi:10.1177/1467358416637253 · Cited by 33
“Individuals from western individualistic cultures tend to convey their emotions in a more direct way than do people who are engrained in collectivistic cultures; the latter are encouraged to control their emotional expressions to maintain group harmony (Heine et al., 1999; Markus and Kitayama, 1991; Matsumoto et al.,…”
BackgroundFields, E. C., Weber, K., Stillerman, B. S., Delaney-Busch, N., & Kuperberg, G. R. (2019) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsz035 · Cited by 31
“Although work on the self-positivity bias has generally not revealed significant gender differences (Alicke and Govorun, 2005), the bias is likely to be particularly sensitive to other social and cultural differences (Heine et al., 1999; Sedikides et al., 2005; Henrich et al., 2010; Kitayama and Park, 2014).”
BackgroundHou, H., Chin, T., Slemp, G. R., & Oades, L. G. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18041485 · Cited by 39
“For example, the meaning of “wellbeing” itself is culturally variant and will thus involve different interpretations across settings with vastly different cultural roots and language systems [24,25].”
BackgroundExamining social media engagement through health-related message framing in different cultures
Agnihotri, A., Bhattacharya, S., Yannopoulou, N., & Liu, M. J. (2022) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.08.005 · Cited by 29
Chow, P. I.-F., & Berenbaum, H. (2012) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026711 · Cited by 29
Hardin, E. E., & Larsen, J. T. (2013) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0033893 · Cited by 35
Kao, C.-H., Su, J. C., Crocker, J., & Chang, J. (2016) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-016-9759-4 · Cited by 28
Gal, D. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107706552.010 · Cited by 36
Religion and subjective well-being among children: A comparison of six religion groups
Kosher, H., & Ben‐Arieh, A. (2017) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.06.049 · Cited by 36
Do cultures vary in self-enhancement? ERP, behavioral, and self-report evidence
Hampton, R. S., & Varnum, M. E. W. (2017) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2017.1361471 · Cited by 31
“phy is not a trivial one, but previous research suggests that testing Chinese students in a Western cultural context should make them more likely to self-enhance, not less likely to do so (Heine & Hamamura, 2007; Heine et al., 1999).”
BackgroundTwo-factor Self-Esteem Scale: Individualistic and Collectivistic Factors
한유화, & Chung, J.-K. (2007) · 한국심리학회지 사회및성격 · doi:10.21193/kjspp.2007.21.4.007 · Cited by 29
Comparing leisure as a subjective experience with the Chinese experience of rùmí
Walker, G. J., & Deng, J. (2003) · Leisure/Loisir · doi:10.1080/14927713.2003.9651315 · Cited by 29
“In addition, because effort has been found to be more important for Asians in at least one study of competence and intrinsic motivation (Heine et al., 1999), it too was examined.”
BackgroundCan We Really Do Without Self-Esteem? Comment on Crocker and Park (2004).
Pyszczynski, T., & Cox, C. R. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.425 · Cited by 30
Subjective Overachievement in American and Chinese College Students
Chang, L., Arkin, R. M., Leong, F. T. L., Chan, D. K. ‐., & Leung, K. Y. (2004) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022103260461 · Cited by 30
“…to their lack of difference in terms of internalexternal attributions of success; this finding supports prior research showing how Chang et al. / SUBJECTIVE OVERACHIEVEMENT 169 attributional styles are related to the degree of cultural collectivism (Crittenden & Bae, 1994; Heine et al., 1999).”
BackgroundResultThe Cultural Grounding of Social Psychological Theory
Miller, J. G. (2001) · doi:10.1002/9780470998519.ch2 · Cited by 32
Understanding Western‐East Asian Differences and Similarities in Self‐Enhancement
Boucher, H. C. (2010) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00266.x · Cited by 28
Ivancovsky, T., Shamay‐Tsoory, S., Lee, J., Morio, H., & Kurman, J. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.11.012 · Cited by 29
Yıldız, B., & İskender, M. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-018-0112-4 · Cited by 31
Lalot, F., Ahvenharju, S., Minkkinen, M., & Wensing, E. J. (2019) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000565 · Cited by 29
Lee, W. W. L. (2021) · Discourse & Communication · doi:10.1177/17504813211026541 · Cited by 27
McCann, R. M., Honeycutt, J. M., & Keaton, S. A. (2010) · Journal of Intercultural Communication Research · doi:10.1080/17475759.2010.534862 · Cited by 28
Multidimensional Gender Identity and Psychological Adjustment in Middle Childhood: A Study in China
Yu, L., & Xie, D. (2009) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9709-2 · Cited by 29
From Emic to Etic: Exporting Indigenous Constructs
Chen, S. X. (2010) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00268.x · Cited by 29
Consumer response to health product communication: The role of perceived product efficacy
Chen, M. (2016) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.02.024 · Cited by 28
Ng, F. F., Sze, I. N., Tamis‐LeMonda, C. S., et al. (2016) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12701 · Cited by 28
Immune to Situation: The Self-Serving Bias in Unambiguous Contexts
Wang, X.-Y., Zheng, L., Li, L., Zheng, Y., Sun, P., Zhou, F. A., & Guo, X.-Y. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00822 · Cited by 28
“Keywords: self-serving bias, self-enhancement, self-assessment, self-awareness, implicit causality INTRODUCTION It is thought to be a fundamental need of individuals to try to maintain positive beliefs about themselves (Heine et al., 1999; Mezulis et al., 2004; Sedikides and Alicke, 2012).”
BackgroundThe effect of narcissistic admiration and rivalry on mental toughness
Manley, H., Jarukasemthawee, S., & Pisitsungkagarn, K. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.009 · Cited by 30
Sandel, T. L. (2004) · Research on Language and Social Interaction · doi:10.1207/s15327973rlsi3703_4 · Cited by 28
Asian Variability in Performance Rating Modesty and Leniency Bias
Barron, L. G., & Sackett, P. R. (2008) · Human Performance · doi:10.1080/08959280802137754 · Cited by 28
“This literature has focused largely on Japan and consistently found Japanese self-effacement (see Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999 , for a review).”
BackgroundCoping with stress: A study of retail banking service workers in Russia
Ashill, N. J., Rod, M., & Gibbs, T. (2015) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2014.12.006 · Cited by 35
Defining and Measuring Self-Concept Change
Gore, J. S., & Cross, S. E. (2011) · Psychological Studies · doi:10.1007/s12646-011-0067-0 · Cited by 28
“Do these conceptions of the self-concept and change apply outside Western, individualistic cultural contexts? Although research on the self in non-Western cultures has exploded in the last two decades, most of it has focused on demonstrating that East Asian self-concepts tend to be more collective or interdependent th…”
BackgroundCross-national research and international business: An interdisciplinary path
Chabowski, B. R., Samiee, S., & Hult, G. T. M. (2016) · International Business Review · doi:10.1016/j.ibusrev.2016.05.008 · Cited by 27
Kimel, S. Y., Mischkowski, D., Kitayama, S., & Uchida, Y. (2017) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022117724900 · Cited by 27
“…pattern is consistent with the hypothesis that whereas those engaged in independent cultures regard social rejection as unfair and unjustifiable (Heine et al., 1999; Smith & Ellsworth, 1985), those in interdependent cultures tend to regard it not only as unfair and unjustifiable but also as…”
ResultSelf-citationSharing product harm information: The effects of self-construal and self-relevance
Akpınar, E., Verlegh, P. W. J., & Smidts, A. (2018) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2018.01.001 · Cited by 28
Development and psychometric validation of the three dimensional grit scale
Kuruveettissery, S., Gupta, S., & Rajan, S. K. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01862-w · Cited by 28
(2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374 · Cited by 30
Mind and virtue: The meaning of learning, a matter of culture?
van Egmond, M., Kühnen, U., & Jin, L. (2013) · Learning Culture and Social Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2013.06.002 · Cited by 30
Compassionate and Self-Image Goals in the United States and Japan
Niiya, Y., Crocker, J., & Mischkowski, D. (2012) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022112451053 · Cited by 27
Vitoroulis, I., Schneider, B. H., Vásquez, C. C., et al. (2011) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022111405657 · Cited by 27
Chen, S., Zhang, G., Zhang, A., & Xu, J. (2015) · Journal of Management & Organization · doi:10.1017/jmo.2015.50 · Cited by 28
Culture and Self-Esteem Over Time
Hamamura, T., & Septarini, B. G. (2017) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550617698205 · Cited by 28
Lay, J. C., Fung, H. H.-L., Jiang, D., Lau, C. H., Mahmood, A. N., Graf, P., & Hoppmann, C. A. (2019) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12641 · Cited by 33
Culture in Mind – An Enactivist Account
Hutto, D. D., Gallagher, S., Ilundáin‐Agurruza, J., & Hipólito, I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.009 · Cited by 29
Cultural Variation in the Importance of Expected Enjoyment for Decision Making
Falk, C. F., Dunn, E. W., & Norenzayan, A. (2010) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2010.28.5.609 · Cited by 31
“East Asians are still highly self-critical even when extreme measures are taken to ensure complete anonymity (Heine et al., 1999), and this tendency toward high objective self-awareness is unaffected by the presence of a mirror (Heine, Takemoto, Moskalenko, Lasaleta, & Henrich, 2008), suggesting that East Asians exhib…”
BackgroundInfluentialIntuitions about situational correction in self and others.
Leaf Van Boven, A., White, K., Kamada, A., & Gilovich, T. D. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.249 · Cited by 26
“Given the existing evidence of diminished selfenhancement tendencies among East Asians (Heine et al., 1999; Heine & Lehman, 1997), the Japanese participants were presumably less motivated to view themselves as superior person perceivers and were thus less likely to believe that they would engage in more situational co…”
BackgroundInfluentialMy worst faults and misdeeds: Self-criticism and self-enhancement can co-exist
Preuss, G. S., & Alicke, M. D. (2017) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2017.1296019 · Cited by 26
“Research has shown that in Japanese culture, focusing on one’s current deficiencies provides the motivation to strive for self-improvement (Heine et al., 1999).”
BackgroundEnvy, Social Comparison, and Depression on Social Networking Sites: A Systematic Review
Carraturo, F., di Perna, T., Giannicola, V., Nacchia, M. A., Pepe, M., Muzii, B., Bottone, M., Sperandeo, R., Bochicchio, V., Maldonato, N., et al. (2023) · European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe13020027 · Cited by 37
Examining the dimensional structure and nomological network of achievement goals in the Philippines
King, R. B. (2015) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.07.019 · Cited by 26
Collectivistic-HRM, firm strategy and firm performance: an empirical test
Li, J., Tang, G., Wang, X., Yan, M. N., & Liu, Z. (2011) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2011.561231 · Cited by 26
“In firms with a collectivism orientation, managers stress collectivism in every dimension of HRM, including recruitment, training, evaluation, reward, compensation, and promotion (Li and Murray 1992 ; Heine, Lehman, Markus and Kitayama 1999 ; Brickson 2005 , 2007 ).”
BackgroundWang, J., Oliver, J. S., & Staver, J. R. (2006) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20182 · Cited by 26
Mortality salience effects on modesty and relative self‐effacement
Wakimoto, R. (2006) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-839x.2006.00194.x · Cited by 26
Impact of Cultural Exposure and Message Framing on Oral Health Behavior
Brick, C., McCully, S. N., Updegraff, J. A., Ehret, P. J., Areguin, M. A., & Sherman, D. K. (2015) · Medical Decision Making · doi:10.1177/0272989x15570114 · Cited by 27
“In contrast, members of more individualistic cultures such as the US are more sensitive to gains, individual distinction, and self-promotion.(18) Framing oral health messages to be congruent with recipient culture leads to higher effectiveness: Individualist white British participants indicated more flossing intention…”
Effects of self-construal and its relationship with subjective well-being across cultures
Yamaguchi, A., & Kim, M. (2013) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105313496448 · Cited by 26
“In the Japanese sample, we identified the direct effect of INT on SSWB (Heine et al., 1999; Heine and Lehman, 1999; Lu and Gilmour, 2006).”
BackgroundMeasurement Invariance of the Self-Description Questionnaire II in a Chinese Sample
Leung, K. C., Marsh, H. W., Craven, R. G., & Abduljabbar, A. S. (2015) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000242 · Cited by 26
What Predicts Well-Being: A Consistent Self-Concept or a Desirable Self-Concept?
Locke, K. D. (2006) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2006.25.2.228 · Cited by 27
Profiles of narcissism and self‐esteem associated with comprehensive mental health in adolescents
Xu, X., Huebner, E. S., & Tian, L. (2020) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.03.007 · Cited by 30
Investigating Implicit Trait Theories Across Cultures
Church, A. T., Katigbak, M. S., Ortiz, F. A., del Prado, A. M., Vargas‐Flores, J. D. J., Ibáñez‐Reyes, J., Reyes, J. A. S., Pe‐Pua, R., & Cabrera, H. F. (2005) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022105275963 · Cited by 26
“…theory measure could now be used to test the hypothesized mediating role of implicit trait beliefs in accounting for cultural differences in self-concept, dispositional attribution, and selfenhancement (e.g., Heine et al., 1999; Kitayama et al., 1997; Newman, 1993; Norenzayan et al., 2002).”
BackgroundResultWhen the Narcissistic Ego Deflates, Narcissistic Aggression Inflates
Bushman, B. J., & Thomaes, S. C. E. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118093108.ch28 · Cited by 25
Kitayama, S., Park, J., & Cho, Y.-H. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190218966.003.0002 · Cited by 25
“In contrast, those with interdependent construal of the self may value their relationships much more and, as a consequence, the self-enhancing motivation may be attenuated or even vanish (Heine et al., 1999).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGender difference in overconfidence and household financial literacy
Lawrence, E. R., Nguyen, T. D., & Wick, B. (2024) · Journal of Banking & Finance · doi:10.1016/j.jbankfin.2024.107237 · Cited by 25
Effects of taking conflict personally on conflict management styles across cultures
Kim, E. J., Yamaguchi, A., Kim, M. S., et al. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.08.004 · Cited by 25
Shu, T., & Lam, S. (2016) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2016.06.012 · Cited by 26
Bolinger, A. R., Klotz, A. C., & Leavitt, K. (2018) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2016.0333 · Cited by 23
Kuanr, A., Israel, D., Pradhan, D., & Chaudhuri, H. R. (2020) · Journal of Consumer Behaviour · doi:10.1002/cb.1914 · Cited by 26
Emotions in Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing and Typically Hearing Children
Tsou, Y., Li, B., Eichengreen, A., Frijns, J. H. M., & Rieffe, C. J. (2021) · The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education · doi:10.1093/deafed/enab022 · Cited by 26
Pathways to individuality: Evolution and development of personality traits.
Buss, A. H. (2011) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/13087-000 · Cited by 25
Bock, T. D., Vermeir, I., & Kenhove, P. V. (2012) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-012-1244-3 · Cited by 28
Cross-Cultural Organizational Psychology
Aycan, Z., & Gelfand, M. J. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199928286.013.0033 · Cited by 27
“…States, in which the self is served by focusing on one's positive attributes to “stand out” and be better than others, yet would be attenuated in collectivistic cultures, such as Japan, where the self is served by focusing on one's negative characteristics to “blend in” (cf. Heine et al., 1999).”
BackgroundCaught Between Culture, Society, and Globalization: Youth Marginalization in Post‐industrial Japan
Norasakkunkit, V., Uchida, Y., & Toivonen, T. (2012) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00436.x · Cited by 26
Adams, G. (2012) · Cited by 29
Peña, J. F., & Chen, M. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.039 · Cited by 25
‘It’s the unknown’ – understanding anxiety: from the perspective of people with multiple sclerosis
Butler, E., Thomas, R., Carolan, A., Silber, E., & Chalder, T. (2018) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2018.1541989 · Cited by 25
Jiang, S., Jiang, C., Ren, Q., & Wang, L. (2021) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106248 · Cited by 29
Don’t hate me because I’m beautiful: Self-enhancing biases in threat appraisal
Menon, T., & Thompson, L. (2007) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.10.007 · Cited by 26
Exercising the Self: On the Role of Exercise, Gender and Culture in Physical-self Perceptions
Lindwall, M. (2004) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e530122013-001 · Cited by 26
Is she the one? Personality judgments from online personal advertisements
Weidman, A. C., Cheng, J. T., CHISHOLM, C., & Tracy, J. L. (2015) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12097 · Cited by 24
The Self: A Transpersonal Neuroanthropological Account
Laughlin, C. D. (2013) · International Journal of Transpersonal Studies · doi:10.24972/ijts.2013.32.1.100 · Cited by 25
Health and happiness among community‐dwelling older adults in Domkhar valley, Ladakh, India
Sakamoto, R., Okumiya, K., Norboo, T., Norboo, T., Wada, T., Fujisawa, M., Imai, H., Nose, M., Ishimoto, Y., Kimura, Y., et al. (2016) · Geriatrics and gerontology international/Geriatrics & gerontology international · doi:10.1111/ggi.12745 · Cited by 24
Savoring or dampening? Maternal reactions to children’s positive emotions in cultural contexts
Song, Q., Yang, Y., Doan, S. N., & Wang, Q. (2019) · Culture and Brain · doi:10.1007/s40167-019-00080-3 · Cited by 29
Individualism-collectivism cultural differences in performance feedback theory
Rhee, M., Alexandra, V., & Powell, K. S. (2020) · Cross Cultural & Strategic Management · doi:10.1108/ccsm-05-2019-0100 · Cited by 29
Ng, W., & Ong, K. R. (2021) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-021-09513-8 · Cited by 28
Stop Ignoring Me! On Fighting the Trivialization of Social Robots in Public Spaces
Schneider, S., Liu, Y., Tomita, K., & Kanda, T. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction · doi:10.1145/3488241 · Cited by 24
“In comparison to Western self-concepts of making independent choices, people from East Asian cultures hold an interdependent self-view and stress much more the importance of harmonious interpersonal relationships [13, 23].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Kyoto University (JP)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1999-10
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 766-794
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2076124583
- Cited by
- 2,247
- References
- 249
- Citations by year
- 2026: 69 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 68 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 112 · 2019: 95 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 105 · 2012: 113
- FWCI
- 51.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- self-esteem, self-criticism, cross-cultural generalizability, Japanese culture, self-construal, North American culture, self-view
- MeSH terms
- Cultural Characteristics, Humans, Japan, Motivation, North America, Self Concept
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
