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Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
Abstract
It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.
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“These differences likely reflect Americans’ tendency to perceive the self in a more positive light than East Asians do (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999), and that participants likely used their cultural group as a reference (Heine, Lehman, Peng, & Greenholtz, 2002).”
From Culture and Healthy Eating: The Role of Independence and Interdependence in the United States and Japan (2016) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“norm-fulfillment may not affect self-esteem in Asia (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; but see Kobayashi & Brown, 2003;Kurman, 2003;Sedikides et al., 2005).”
From Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem. (2015) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“It is universally adaptive to be viewed as good and worthy of high regard in one's culture”
From Implications of an Emerging Integration of Universal and Culturally Specific Psychologies (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“Members of collectivist cultures may thus be less motivated to protect self-integrity because their culture places less emphasis on esteeming the self (Heine et al., 1999).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“In individualist cultures (such as the US), the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures (such as in East Asia), the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
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“The Japanese are educated to make an effort regardless of its immediate results, as eventually such efforts will improve one’s performance (Heine et al., 1999).”
BackgroundOn when self-enhancement and self-criticism function adaptively and maladaptively.
Sedikides, C., & Luke, M. A. (2008) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11624-011 · Cited by 32
A Meta-Analysis of Cultural Differences in Revenge and Forgiveness
Lennon, R. E. (2013) · University of North Florida Digital Commons (University of North Florida) · Cited by 31
In and out of control: Personal control and consumer behavior
Cutright, K. M., & Wu, E. C. (2022) · Consumer Psychology Review · doi:10.1002/arcp.1083 · Cited by 36
Wentura, D., & Greve, W. (2005) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/13576500444000263 · Cited by 31
Lee, H. E., Park, H. S., Imai, T., & Dolan, D. (2012) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x12446595 · Cited by 33
“In contrast, East Asian people are motivated to maintain self-critical and selfimproving orientations (cf. Heine et al., 1999; Kim, 2003).”
BackgroundPerceived emotion suppression and culture: Effects on psychological well‐being
Kwon, H., & Kim, Y.-H. (2018) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12486 · Cited by 32
Walker, G. J., Yan, N., & Kono, S. (2020) · Journal of Leisure Research · doi:10.1080/00222216.2020.1735973 · Cited by 40
“…earlier, an experimental study found that competence influenced Canadian students’ intrinsic motivation but not their Japanese counterparts; likely, Heine et al. (1999) held, because satisfaction of this need strengthened the formers’ sense of self but threatened the latter’s sense of group…”
BackgroundResultHaginoya, S., Yamamoto, S., Pompedda, F., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00998 · Cited by 31
Kitayama, S., & Park, J. (2020) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167220929824 · Cited by 31
“…including conscientiousness, self-rated health, and social obligation, the means were significantly higher for Americans than for Japanese, ts > 8.17, ps < .001, ds > 0.49, likely due to a positivity bias that is known to be stronger for Americans than for Japanese (Heine et al., 1999).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationCulture and the mode of thought: A review
Ishii, K. (2012) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajsp.12011 · Cited by 31
Sharma, P., Sivakumaran, B., & Marshall, R. (2011) · Journal of International Consumer Marketing · doi:10.1080/08961530.2011.578060 · Cited by 32
“On the other hand, East Asians tend to be less confident of their personal ability to control the environment ( Heine, Kitayama, and Lehman 2001 ; Heine and Lehman 1995 ; Heine et al.”
Self and Agency in Context: Ecologies of Abundance and Scarcity
Adams, G., Bruckmüller, S., & Decker, S. K. (2012) · International Perspectives in Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0029348 · Cited by 36
Nezlek, J. B., Sorrentino, R. M., Yasunaga, S., Otsubo, Y., Allen, M. R., Kouhara, S., & Shuper, P. A. (2008) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022108323785 · Cited by 31
“Broadly speaking, research on affective expression and experience suggests that East Asians should react less strongly to daily events than North Americans do, particularly regarding positive feelings such as happiness (e.g., Heine et al., 1999).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRegulatory focus and message framing’s effects on intention to consume ethnic food in China
Cui, H., Fam, K., & Zhao, T. (2019) · British Food Journal · doi:10.1108/bfj-09-2018-0637 · Cited by 30
Cultural Differences in Emotions
Leersnyder, J. D., Boiger, M., & Mesquita, B. (2015) · Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0060 · Cited by 30
“In contrast, the relationship goals in most collectivistic cultures like Japan or Turkey are to be interdependent and to adjust to each other’s expectations (Heine et al., 1999; Lebra, 1992).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Kyoto University (JP)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1999-10
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 766-794
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2076124583
- Cited by
- 2,247
- References
- 249
- Citations by year
- 2026: 69 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 68 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 112 · 2019: 95 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 105 · 2012: 113
- FWCI
- 51.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- self-esteem, self-criticism, cross-cultural generalizability, Japanese culture, self-construal, North American culture, self-view
- MeSH terms
- Cultural Characteristics, Humans, Japan, Motivation, North America, Self Concept
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