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Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
Abstract
It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.
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“These differences likely reflect Americans’ tendency to perceive the self in a more positive light than East Asians do (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999), and that participants likely used their cultural group as a reference (Heine, Lehman, Peng, & Greenholtz, 2002).”
From Culture and Healthy Eating: The Role of Independence and Interdependence in the United States and Japan (2016) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“norm-fulfillment may not affect self-esteem in Asia (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; but see Kobayashi & Brown, 2003;Kurman, 2003;Sedikides et al., 2005).”
From Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem. (2015) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“It is universally adaptive to be viewed as good and worthy of high regard in one's culture”
From Implications of an Emerging Integration of Universal and Culturally Specific Psychologies (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“Members of collectivist cultures may thus be less motivated to protect self-integrity because their culture places less emphasis on esteeming the self (Heine et al., 1999).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“In individualist cultures (such as the US), the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures (such as in East Asia), the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
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“…sociocultural processes through which a particular cultural mode of psychology develops, sustains, and changes, with some notable exceptions in the literature of culture and the self (e.g., Heine et al., 1999; Kitayama, Markus, Masumoto, & Norasakkunkit, 1997; Morling, Kitayama, & Miyamoto, 2002).”
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Pringle, A., McCabe, C., Cowen, P., & Harmer, C. (2013) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881112474523 · Cited by 37
“Indeed, a positive self-bias is generally seen in healthy volunteers (Heine et al., 1999).”
BackgroundA Meta-analytic Systematic Review and Theory of the Effects of Perceived Listening on Work Outcomes
Kluger, A. N., Lehmann, M., Aguinis, H., Itzchakov, G., Gordoni, G., Zyberaj, J., & Bakaç, C. (2023) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-023-09897-5 · Cited by 56
“For example, the need for positive self-regard, which may be satisfied by a feeling that one is being listened to, tends to be higher in Western cultures (Heine et al., 1999).”
Social Structure and Personality
Schnittker, J. (2013) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6772-0_4 · Cited by 40
Self-Esteem Modulates the Time Course of Self-Positivity Bias in Explicit Self-Evaluation
Zhang, H., Guan, L., Qi, M., & Yang, J. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0081169 · Cited by 39
“people in the America [29].”
Self-enhancement among Westerners and Easterners: a cultural neuroscience approach
Cai, H., Wu, L., Shi, Y., Gu, R., & Sedikides, C. (2016) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsw072 · Cited by 43
“absent in Eastern culture resulting in an interdependent selfconstrual (Markus and Kitayama, 1991; Heine et al., 1999).”
BackgroundInfluentialMcCrackin, S. D., & Itier, R. J. (2018) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.03.003 · Cited by 38
Lee, W. W. L. (2020) · Lingua · doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2020.102872 · Cited by 43
Metadata
- Authors
- Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Kyoto University (JP)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1999-10
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 766-794
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2076124583
- Cited by
- 2,247
- References
- 249
- Citations by year
- 2026: 69 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 68 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 112 · 2019: 95 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 105 · 2012: 113
- FWCI
- 51.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- self-esteem, self-criticism, cross-cultural generalizability, Japanese culture, self-construal, North American culture, self-view
- MeSH terms
- Cultural Characteristics, Humans, Japan, Motivation, North America, Self Concept
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