Cited by 6,690Optimism, Hope, and Well-beingAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesCancer survivorship and care

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Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies.

Scheier, Michael F., Carver, Charles S.·1985·Health Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0278-6133.4.3.219

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Abstract

This article describes a scale measuring dispositional optimism, defined in terms of generalized outcome expectancies. Two preliminary studies assessed the scale's psychometric properties and its relationships with several other instruments. The scale was then used in a longitudinal study of symptom reporting among a group of undergraduates. Specifically, respondents were asked to complete three questionnaires 4 weeks before the end of a semester. Included in the questionnaire battery was the measure of optimism, a measure of private self-consciousness, and a 39-item physical symptom checklist. Subjects completed the same set of questionnaires again on the last day of class. Consistent with predictions, subjects who initially reported being highly optimistic were subsequently less likely to report being bothered by symptoms (even after correcting for initial symptom-report levels) than were subjects who initially reported being less optimistic. This effect tended to be stronger among persons high in private self-consciousness than among those lower in private self-consciousness. Discussion centers on other health related applications of the optimism scale, and the relationships between our theoretical orientation and several related theories.

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Method
Psychological, surgical, and sociodemographic predictors of pain outcomes after breast cancer surgery: A population-based cohort study
Bruce, J., Thornton, A. J., Powell, R., Johnston, M., Wells, M., Heys, S. D., Thompson, A. M., Smith, C. W., Chambers, A. W., & Scott, N. W. (2014) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2013.09.028 · Cited by 260
“Two indicators of psychological robustness were assessed: the tendency to experience general positive affect, captured using the positive affect scale of the PANAS (PANAS-PA), and dispositional optimism, defined as generalized outcome expectancies that good things rather than bad things will happen, measured using the…”
Method
Mood and global-local visual processing
Basso, M. R., Schefft, B. K., Ris, M. D., & Dember, W. N. (1996) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617700001193 · Cited by 261
Hope, optimism, self‐efficacy, and posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta‐analytic review of the protective effects of positive expectancies
Gallagher, M. W., Long, L. J., & Phillips, C. A. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22882 · Cited by 264
Relationship between Resilience, Optimism and Psychological Well-Being in Students of Medicine
Souri, H., & Hasanirad, T. (2011) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.299 · Cited by 312
“In line with this research, the previous studies have indicated that there appears to be a positive relationship between optimism and well-being (Scheier and Carver, 1985).”
Result
When Two Factors Don’t Reflect Two Constructs: How Item Characteristics Can Produce Artifactual Factors
Spector, P. E., Katwyk, P. T. V., Brannick, M. Τ., & Chen, P. Y. (1997) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/014920639702300503 · Cited by 276
Are individuals entering self‐employment overly optimistic? an empirical test of plans and projections on nascent entrepreneur expectations
Cassar, G. (2009) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.833 · Cited by 301
Psychological aspects of tinnitus and the application of cognitive–behavioral therapy
Andersson, G. (2002) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(01)00124-6 · Cited by 262
Establishing the psychometric qualities of the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis in a trauma survivor sample
Karaırmak, Ö. (2010) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2009.09.012 · Cited by 293
“The Life Orientation Scale (Scheier and Carver, 1985) and Dispositional Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1991) were used to assess optimism and hope.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Conceptualizations, measurement, and effects of prenatal maternal stress on birth outcomes
Lobel, M. (1994) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/bf01857952 · Cited by 256
“…on life events focuses on variables which moderate the effects of life events on physical and psychological health, including variables such as social support (e.g., Cohen and Wills, 1985; Payne and Jones, 1987) and personality traits (e.g., Depue and Monroe, 1986; Scheier and Carver, 1985).”
Background
Patient participation in deciding breast cancer treatment and subsequent quality of life
Street, R. L., & Voigt, B. (1997) · Medical Decision Making · doi:10.1177/0272989x9701700306 · Cited by 258
Religious faith and spirituality in substance abuse recovery
Pardini, D. A., Plante, T. G., Sherman, A. C., & Stump, J. (2000) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/s0740-5472(00)00125-2 · Cited by 274
Collective Efficacy: A Multilevel Analysis
Watson, C. B., Chemers, M. M., & Preiser, N. (2001) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167201278012 · Cited by 257
“Optimists have positive expectations about the future (Scheier & Carver, 1985).”
BackgroundMethod
Assessing the dimensionality of optimism and pessimism using a multimeasure approach
Chang, E. C., D’Zurilla, T. J., & Maydeu‐Olivares, A. (1994) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf02357221 · Cited by 249
“Studies have found that optimism is related to more adaptive coping behavior in stressful situations (Natali-Alemafiy, 1991; Scheier & Carver, 1987), as well as greater physical and psychological well-being (Dember & Brooks, 1990; Natali-Alemafiy, 1991; Scheier & Carver, 1985, 1987 ).”
BackgroundMethod
How do objective and subjective assessments of neighbourhood influence social and physical functioning in older age? Findings from a British survey of ageing
Bowling, A., & Stafford, M. (2007) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.03.009 · Cited by 254
Die deutsche Version des Life-Orientation-Tests (LOT-R) zum dispositionellen Optimismus und Pessimismus
Glaesmer, H., Hoyer, J., Klotsche, J., & Herzberg, P. Y. (2008) · Zeitschrift für Gesundheitspsychologie · doi:10.1026/0943-8149.16.1.26 · Cited by 255
Optimism in close relationships: How seeing things in a positive light makes them so.
Srivastava, S., McGonigal, K. M., Richards, J. M., Butler, E. A., & Gross, J. J. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.143 · Cited by 253
The role of children's future expectations in self-system functioning and adjustment to life stress: A prospective study of urban at-risk children
Wyman, P. A., Cowen, E. L., Work, W. C., & Kerley, J. H. (1993) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579400006210 · Cited by 263
Effect of a psychological skills training program on swimming performance and positive psychological development
Sheard, M., & Golby, J. (2006) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2006.9671790 · Cited by 291
“The Life Orientation Test (LOT; Scheier & Carver, 1985) is an 8-item self-report measure (plus four filler items) It is rated on a 5-point Likert scale anchored by ‘I agree a lot’ and ‘I disagree a lot’ Possible scores range from a low of 0 to a desirable high of 32 Studies have shown the LOT to…”
Method
Happiness, introversion–extraversion and happy introverts
Hills, P. R., & Argyle, M. (2001) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00058-1 · Cited by 251
Patient expectations and patient-reported outcomes in surgery: a systematic review
Waljee, J., McGlinn, E. P., Sears, E. D., & Chung, K. C. (2014) · Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.surg.2013.12.015 · Cited by 245
Creating New Ventures: A Review and Research Agenda
Shepherd, D. A., Souitaris, V., & Gruber, M. B. (2020) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206319900537 · Cited by 256
“…to move down that path (Huang, Souitaris, & Barsade, 2019; Peterson et al., 2009), optimism refers to a generalized belief that good things will happen (Scheier & Carver, 1985), and resilience refers to the capacity to maintain positive functioning in the face of adverse events (Bonanno, 2005).”
Background
State or trait: effects of state optimism on job‐related outcomes
Kluemper, D. H., Little, L. M., & DeGroot, T. (2009) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.591 · Cited by 246
“The scale is an eight-item self-report measurewhich, like the revised LOT scale, was designed to assess trait optimism.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Acceptance and denial: implications for people adapting to chronic illness: literature review
Telford, K., Kralik, D., & Koch, T. (2006) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2006.03942.x · Cited by 246
Day‐to‐Day Physical Symptoms: Individual Differences in the Occurrence, Duration, and Emotional Concomitants of Minor Daily Illnesses
Larsen, R. J., & Kasimatis, M. D. (1991) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1991.tb00254.x · Cited by 253
Affective and Social Self- Regulatory Efficacy Beliefs as Determinants of Positive Thinking and Happiness
Caprara, G. V., & Steca, P. (2005) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040.10.4.275 · Cited by 269
Views of the downward extension: comparing the Youth Version of the Psychopathy Checklist with the Youth Psychopathic traits Inventory
Skeem, J. L., & Cauffman, E. E. (2003) · Behavioral Sciences & the Law · doi:10.1002/bsl.563 · Cited by 257
“Items for this instrument were drawn from various measures of similar constructs (Scheier & Carver, 1985; Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger, & Edwards, 1994; Zimbardo, 1990).”
Method
The Network of Psychological Variables in Patients With Diabetes and Their Importance for Quality of Life and Metabolic Control
Rose, M., Fliege, H., Hildebrandt, M., Schirop, T., & Klapp, B. F. (2002) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.25.1.35 · Cited by 245
“The Assessment of Beliefs in Self-Efficacy and Optimism (SWOP) questionnaire (48) was created by restructuring two older questionnaires (49,50).”
Method

Authors: Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S.
Affiliations: Carnegie Mellon University (US)
ORCID: Scheier, Michael F.
Carver, Charles S.
Venue: Health Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1985
Volume: 4
Issue: 3
Pages: 219-247
ISSN: 0278-6133 (ISSN-L)
1930-7810
DOI: 10.1037/0278-6133.4.3.219
OpenAlex: W2170246810
Cited by: 6,690
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 155 · 2025: 235 · 2024: 198 · 2023: 218 · 2022: 288 · 2021: 287 · 2020: 320 · 2019: 263 · 2018: 241 · 2017: 222 · 2016: 295 · 2015: 277 · 2014: 274 · 2013: 261 · 2012: 272
FWCI: 24.81
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Health Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Science Foundation
Carnegie Mellon University
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Cancer survivorship and care
Keywords: dispositional optimism, optimism scale, psychometric properties, coping, somatic symptoms, symptom reporting, private self-consciousness, undergraduate students, health
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Attitude, Female, Humans, Male, Personality, Psychological Tests, Psychometrics, Psychophysiologic Disorders, Self Concept, Set, Psychology, Social Perception

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Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies.

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