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Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies.
Abstract
This article describes a scale measuring dispositional optimism, defined in terms of generalized outcome expectancies. Two preliminary studies assessed the scale's psychometric properties and its relationships with several other instruments. The scale was then used in a longitudinal study of symptom reporting among a group of undergraduates. Specifically, respondents were asked to complete three questionnaires 4 weeks before the end of a semester. Included in the questionnaire battery was the measure of optimism, a measure of private self-consciousness, and a 39-item physical symptom checklist. Subjects completed the same set of questionnaires again on the last day of class. Consistent with predictions, subjects who initially reported being highly optimistic were subsequently less likely to report being bothered by symptoms (even after correcting for initial symptom-report levels) than were subjects who initially reported being less optimistic. This effect tended to be stronger among persons high in private self-consciousness than among those lower in private self-consciousness. Discussion centers on other health related applications of the optimism scale, and the relationships between our theoretical orientation and several related theories.
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“Concurrently, they are associated with an increased risk of depression,2829 and sadness is a core symptom of depression.12”
From Prevalence and Correlates of Suicidal Ideation among Psycho-Oncology Outpatients (2024) · cites this paper as [28]
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“A tanult módszerek napi, rendszeres gyakorlása javítja a pszichológiai közérzetet, növeli az életerőt, és jótékony hatással van az életminőségre [30, 32].”
From Éber, tudatos figyelemre épülő, a rákbetegséggel való megküzdést segítő program (MBCR) hatásvizsgálata magyar rákbetegek körében (2017) · cites this paper as [30]
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“A 12 tételes mérőeszköz belső megbízhatósága elfogadható volt (Cronbach-alfa: 0,72).”
From Éber, tudatos figyelemre épülő, a rákbetegséggel való megküzdést segítő program (MBCR) hatásvizsgálata magyar rákbetegek körében (2017) · cites this paper as [30]
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MethodGross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348 · Cited by 11,929
“Optimism was assessed using the eight-item Life Orientation Test ( Scheier & Carver, 1985; .85).”
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“…constructs include monitoring-blunting (Miller, 1987), sensation seeking (Zuckerman, 1979), constructive thinking (Epstein & Meier, 1989), optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985), impulsivity (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1969), behavioral inhibition (Ka-gan, Reznick, & Snidman, 1988), constraint (Tellegen,…”
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Self-citationTARGET ARTICLE: "Posttraumatic Growth: Conceptual Foundations and Empirical Evidence"
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BackgroundMethodPOSITIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL CAPITAL: MEASUREMENT AND RELATIONSHIP WITH PERFORMANCE AND SATISFACTION
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“Dispositional optimismis defined as “the tendency to believe that one will generally experience good vs. bad outcomes in life” (Scheier & Carver, 1985, p. 219) and is distinguishable from neuroticism and trait anxiety (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994).”
BackgroundInfluentialHow does sexual minority stigma “get under the skin”? A psychological mediation framework
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“Much of the research on the personality dimension of pessimism has focused on how pessimistic individuals exhibit negative expectations of future outcomes across a variety of life domains (Chang, 2001; Scheier & Carver, 1985).”
Psychological Aspects of Natural Language Use: Our Words, Our Selves
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“Variable Description Examples of measures used Protestant Work Ethic Scale (Blood, 1969) Coping Resources Personal Core Self-Evaluation Overall evaluations that represent one's appraisal of people, events, and things in relation to oneself (Judge, Locke, & Durham, 1997) Self-Esteem Inventory (Rosenberg, 1965) Life Ori…”
BackgroundInfluentialGriffiths, R. R., Johnson, M. W., Carducci, M. A., Umbricht, A., Richards, W. A., Richards, B. D., Cosimano, M. P., & Klinedinst, M. A. (2016) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881116675513 · Cited by 2,201
“…existence (existential subscale) during life-threatening illness (Cohen et al., 1995); LOT-R, self-rated optimism measure associated with illness (Scheier and Carver, 1985); LAP-R Death Acceptance, selfrated scale assessing absence of anxiety about death (Reker, 1992); Death Transcendence Scale,…”
BackgroundMethodSlovic, P., Finucane, M., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2002) · Heuristics and Biases · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.025 · Cited by 2,349
Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1992) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf01173489 · Cited by 2,220
“Over the years, the focus of our research has slowly shifted to a consideration of expectancies that are more general, if not more amorphous, in nature (see, e.g., Scheier & Carver, 1985 ).”
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Resilience in the Face of Catastrophe: Optimism, Personality, and Coping in the Kosovo Crisis
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BackgroundMethodEmerging Positive Organizational Behavior
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BackgroundInfluentialMaximizing versus satisficing: Happiness is a matter of choice.
Schwartz, B. N., Ward, A. C., Monterosso, J. R., Lyubomirsky, S., White, K., & Lehman, D. R. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.5.1178 · Cited by 1,920
Luthans, F., Norman, S. M., Avolio, B. J., & Avey, J. B. (2008) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.507 · Cited by 1,480
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BackgroundFriborg, O., Hjemdal, O., Rosenvinge, J. H., & Martinussen, M. (2003) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.143 · Cited by 1,348
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“A way to reduce priming effects used in psychometric scales (see Scheier & Carver, 1985) is to introduce distracter or filler items that can help obscure and mask the measurement construct by acting as red herrings.”
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“…Scale (M.S. Smith, Wallston, & Smith, 1995), the Arthritis Self-Efficacy Scales (Lorig, Chastain, Ung, Shoor, & Holman, 1989), the Life Orientation Test (LOT)—a measure of dispositional optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985), and the Psychological Vulnerability Scale (Sinclair & Wallston, 1999).”
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Wanberg, C. R., & Banas, J. T. (2000) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.1.132 · Cited by 1,391
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BackgroundSelf‐Compassion Versus Global Self‐Esteem: Two Different Ways of Relating to Oneself
Neff, K. D., & Vonk, R. (2008) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00537.x · Cited by 1,258
“This measure has good internal consistency ( Scheier & Carver, 1985 ) and test–retest reliability (Scheier & Carver, 1993).”
BackgroundScheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1987) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1987.tb00434.x · Cited by 1,268
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Taylor, S. E., Kemeny, M. E., Reed, G. M., Bower, J. E., & Gruenewald, T. L. (2000) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.99 · Cited by 1,313
“As part of Kemeny et al.'s (1994) psychosocial substudy with the MACS, these men completed an extensive questionnaire assessing their self-reported health status, psychological adjustment, psychological responses to HIV (items based on Folkman & Lazarus's, 1980, Ways of Coping measure), and a number of standardized sc…”
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Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., & Peterson, S. J. (2010) · Human Resource Development Quarterly · doi:10.1002/hrdq.20034 · Cited by 1,294
“Although optimism has been portrayed as dispositional in the early work of Scheier and Carver (1985), Seligman (1998) later suggested that it can be developed, which he termed " learned optimism.”
BackgroundMethodThe Structure of Ethnic Identity of Young Adolescents from Diverse Ethnocultural Groups
ROBERTS, R. E., Phinney, J. S., Mâsse, L. C., Chen, Y. R., Roberts, C. R., & Romero, A. J. (1999) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431699019003001 · Cited by 1,144
“Optimismwas measured using a six-item, revised version of the Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) ( Scheier & Carver, 1985 ).”
MethodThe relational-interdependent self-construal and relationships.
Cross, S. E., Bacon, P. L., & Morris, M. L. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.791 · Cited by 1,092
Aspinwall, L. G., & Taylor, S. E. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.6.989 · Cited by 1,060
Prevalence of Mental Illness in Immigrant and Non-Immigrant U.S. Latino Groups
Alegria, M. M., CANINO, G. J., Shrout, P. E., Woo, M., Duan, N., Vila, D., Torres, M., Chen, C., & Meng, X. (2008) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07040704 · Cited by 1,020
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BackgroundResilience and Thriving: Issues, Models, and Linkages
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Self-citationDispositional Optimism and Coping: A Meta-Analytic Review
Nes, L. S., & Segerstrom, S. C. (2006) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1003_3 · Cited by 1,000
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Kanfer, R., Wanberg, C. R., & Kantrowitz, T. M. (2001) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.5.837 · Cited by 1,124
“…Generalized expectations about the occurrence of positive outcomes, or the belief that "good as opposed to bad things will occur in one's life" (Scheier & Carver, 1985) Self-reported confidence for successfully accomplishing specific job search activities and obtaining employment (R. Kanfer&…”
BackgroundPrati, G., & Pietrantoni, L. (2009) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325020902724271 · Cited by 978
A validity and reliability study of the coping self‐efficacy scale
Chesney, M. A., Neilands, T. B., Chambers, D. B., Taylor, J. M., & Folkman, S. (2006) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1348/135910705x53155 · Cited by 942
“Optimism was assessed with the widely used 12-item Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R; Scheier & Carver, 1985;Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994).”
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Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Walumbwa, F. O., & Li, W. (2005) · Management and Organization Review · doi:10.1111/j.1740-8784.2005.00011.x · Cited by 1,036
“Traditionally in psychology, optimism has been conceptualized as a goal-based construct that occurs when an outcome has substantial value (Scheier and Carver, 1985).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPosttraumatic growth following breast cancer: a controlled comparison study
Cordova, M. J., Cunningham, L. L. C., Carlson, C. R., & Andrykowski, M. A. (2001) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.20.3.176 · Cited by 973
Construing Benefits from Adversity: Adaptotional Significance and Disposltional Underpinnings
Affleck, G., & Tennen, H. (1996) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1996.tb00948.x · Cited by 614
Lyubomirsky, S. (2001) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.56.3.239 · Cited by 995
Scheier, M. F., Matthews, K. A., Owens, J. F., Magovern, G. J., Lefebvre, R. C., Abbott, R. A., & Carver, C. S. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.57.6.1024 · Cited by 1,023
Self-citationPeterson, C. (2000) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.55.1.44 · Cited by 1,606
“On the face of it, the dispositional optimism measure of Scheier and Carver (1985) and the hope measure of Snyder et al. (1996) tap big optimism because they ask people to respond to generalizations about the future.”
BackgroundInfluentialBoehm, J. K., & Kubzansky, L. D. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0027448 · Cited by 909
Schetter, C. D. (2010) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.031809.130727 · Cited by 969
Experimental analysis of a web-based training intervention to develop positive psychological capital
Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., & Patera, J. L. (2008) · Academy of Management Learning & Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2008.32712618 · Cited by 900
“Similar to hope, optimism is commonly discussed, but in positive psychology, Seligman (1998) utilizes an attribution or explanatory style to understand it.”
BackgroundWeinstein, N., Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.12.008 · Cited by 874
“Scheier & Carver, 1985 ) by agreeing or disagreeing on a scale of 1–4 items such as ‘‘I usually expect the best”.”
BackgroundMethodConceptualizing, Measuring, and Nurturing Hope
Snyder, C. R. R. (1995) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1995.tb01764.x · Cited by 942
Schwarzer, R., Bäßler, J., Kwiatek, P., Schröder, K. E. E., & Zhang, J. X. (1997) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01096.x · Cited by 967
“'In contrast to dispositional optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985, 1992), the theoretical advantage of generalised self-efficacy lies in the explicit assumptions about the causal underpinnings of one's positive outlook on life.”
BackgroundMethodDeveloping the Psychological Capital of Resiliency
Luthans, F., Vogelgesang, G. R., & Lester, P. B. (2006) · Human Resource Development Review · doi:10.1177/1534484305285335 · Cited by 971
Buysse, D. J., Hall, M. L., Strollo, P. J., Kamarck, T. W., Owens, J., Lee, L., Reis, S. E., & Matthews, K. A. (2008) · Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine · doi:10.5664/jcsm.27351 · Cited by 858
Rhythms of Life: Antecedents and Outcomes of Work-Family Balance in Employed Parents.
Aryee, S., Srinivas, E. S., & Tan, H. H. (2005) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.1.132 · Cited by 847
“We used the eight-item Life Orientation Test (LOT; Scheier & Carver, 1985) to measure optimism.”
MethodSocio‐economic disparities in pregnancy outcome: why do the poor fare so poorly?
Kramer, M. S., Séguin, L., Lydon, J. E., & Goulet, L. (2000) · Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-3016.2000.00266.x · Cited by 825
Relationships between personality variables and burnout: A meta-analysis
Alarcon, G., Eschleman, K. J., & Bowling, N. A. (2009) · Work & Stress · doi:10.1080/02678370903282600 · Cited by 804
“…2003), the Five-Factor Model characteristics (Costa & McCrae, 1992), positive and negative affectivity (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988), optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985), proactively personality (Bateman & Crant, 1993), hardiness (Kobasa, 1979), and Type A Personality (Friedman & Rosenman,…”
BackgroundSears, S. R., Stanton, A. L., & Danoff-Burg, S. (2003) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.22.5.487 · Cited by 803
The Health Benefits of Writing about Life Goals
King, L. A. (2001) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167201277003 · Cited by 795
“In addition, participants completed the Life Orientation Test (LOT) (Scheier & Carver, 1985), an eight-item instrument measuring dispositional optimism—the extent to which individuals expect favorable outcomes.”
MethodInfluentialOptimism and Physical Health: A Meta-analytic Review
Rasmussen, H. N., Scheier, M. F., & Greenhouse, J. B. (2009) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-009-9111-x · Cited by 854
“This view is consistent with the fact that scales of generalized optimism are often shown to comprise two separate components [ 18 , 19, 23, 24]—one measuring the person’s expectancies for positive outcomes (i.e., his or her optimism) and one measuring the person’s expectancies for negative outcomes (i.e., his or her…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationToward a theory-based analysis of behavioral maintenance
Rothman, A. J. (2000) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.19.suppl1.64 · Cited by 783
Emotionally expressive coping predicts psychological and physical adjustment to breast cancer
Stanton, A. L., Danoff-Burg, S., Cameron, C. L., Bishop, M., Collins, C. A., Kirk, S. B., Sworowski, L. A., & Twillman, R. (2000) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.68.5.875 · Cited by 800
“(Scheier & Carver, 1985), a generalized expectancy for positive outcomes, Cameron and Nicholls (1998) demonstrated that participating in a written emotional disclosure task was effective in reducing health center visits for optimists but not for pessimists, for whom the task was successful only if…”
BackgroundThe Additive Value of Positive Psychological Capital in Predicting Work Attitudes and Behaviors
Avey, J. B., Luthans, F., & Youssef, C. M. (2009) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206308329961 · Cited by 845
“This instrument has adapted 6 items each from published hope (Snyder et al., 1996), efficacy (Parker, 1998), resilience ( Wagnild & Young, 1993) and optimism ( Scheier & Carver, 1985) scales.”
MethodRothman, A. J., Bartels, R. D., Wlaschin, J., & Salovey, P. (2006) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00290.x · Cited by 771
“…of a person's personality might also affect how they construe a behavior (e.g., regulatory focus [Higgins, 1998, 1999], dispositional optimism [Scheier & Carver, 1985], monitoring and blunting [Miller, 1995], and consideration of future consequences [Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger, & Edwards,…”
BackgroundConfession, Inhibition, and Disease
Pennebaker, J. W. (1989) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60309-3 · Cited by 760
Global Judgments of Subjective Well-Being: Situational Variability and Long-Term Stability
Eid, M., & Diener, E. (2004) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1023/b:soci.0000003801.89195.bc · Cited by 714
Happiness in Everyday Life: The Uses of Experience Sampling
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Hunter, J. (2003) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1023/a:1024409732742 · Cited by 717
Savoring Beliefs Inventory (SBI): A scale for measuring beliefs about savouring
Bryant, F. (2003) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/0963823031000103489 · Cited by 697
“…1985, p. 545); (b) extraversion, which has consistently been linked to higher levels of reported well-being in past research (Costa & McCrae, 1980; Diener, 1984; Wilson, 1967); and (c) dispositional optimism, the favorability of a person’s generalized outcome expectancies (Scheier & Carver, 1985).”
BackgroundPersonality and prosocial behavior: A theoretical framework and meta-analysis.
Thielmann, I., Spadaro, G., & Balliet, D. P. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000217 · Cited by 743
Breitbart, W., Rosenfeld, B., Gibson, C., Pessin, H., Poppito, S., Nelson, C., Tomarken, A., Timm, A. K., Berg, A., Jacobson, C., et al. (2010) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.1556 · Cited by 704
“However, differences in treatment effects approached significance for optimism (the LOT), F(2, 33) = 3.23, p = 0.06.”
MethodInfluentialSubjective Well‐Being: The Convergence and Stability of Self‐Report and Non‐Self‐Report Measures
Sandvik, E., Diener, E., & Seidlitz, L. (1993) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1993.tb00283.x · Cited by 687
“These included the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI; Derogatis, 1975), the Life Orientation Test (LOT; Scheier & Carver, 1985 ), and the extraversion and neuroticism scales of the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI; Costa & McCrae, 1985).”
MethodA Meta-Analysis for Exploring the Diverse Causes and Effects of Stress in Teachers
Montgomery, C., & Rupp, A. A. (2005) · Canadian Journal of Education / Revue canadienne de l'éducation · doi:10.2307/4126479 · Cited by 688
Dunning, D. A., Meyerowitz, J. A., & Holzberg, A. D. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.020 · Cited by 689
Hope and academic success in college.
Snyder, C. R., Shorey, H. S., Cheavens, J., Pulvers, K. M., Adams, V. H., & Wiklund, C. (2002) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.94.4.820 · Cited by 790
“Scheier and Carver (1985) defined optimism as a general outcome expectancy that good things will happen and developed the Life Orientation Test to reflect this definition (LOT).”
BackgroundMethodHealth Psychology: Psychological Adjustment to Chronic Disease
Stanton, A. L., Revenson, T. A., & Tennen, H. A. (2006) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085615 · Cited by 749
“In recent years, dispositional optimism (Scheier & Carver 1985) has been the most frequently examined personality attribute in relation to disease-related adjustment.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S.
- Affiliations
- Carnegie Mellon University (US)
- Venue
- Health Psychology
- Published
- 1985
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 219-247
- ISSN
- 0278-6133 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-7810
- OpenAlex
- W2170246810
- Cited by
- 6,690
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 155 · 2025: 235 · 2024: 198 · 2023: 218 · 2022: 288 · 2021: 287 · 2020: 320 · 2019: 263 · 2018: 241 · 2017: 222 · 2016: 295 · 2015: 277 · 2014: 274 · 2013: 261 · 2012: 272
- FWCI
- 24.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Health Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Carnegie Mellon University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Cancer survivorship and care
- Keywords
- dispositional optimism, optimism scale, psychometric properties, coping, somatic symptoms, symptom reporting, private self-consciousness, undergraduate students, health
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Attitude, Female, Humans, Male, Personality, Psychological Tests, Psychometrics, Psychophysiologic Disorders, Self Concept, Set, Psychology, Social Perception
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