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Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies.
Abstract
This article describes a scale measuring dispositional optimism, defined in terms of generalized outcome expectancies. Two preliminary studies assessed the scale's psychometric properties and its relationships with several other instruments. The scale was then used in a longitudinal study of symptom reporting among a group of undergraduates. Specifically, respondents were asked to complete three questionnaires 4 weeks before the end of a semester. Included in the questionnaire battery was the measure of optimism, a measure of private self-consciousness, and a 39-item physical symptom checklist. Subjects completed the same set of questionnaires again on the last day of class. Consistent with predictions, subjects who initially reported being highly optimistic were subsequently less likely to report being bothered by symptoms (even after correcting for initial symptom-report levels) than were subjects who initially reported being less optimistic. This effect tended to be stronger among persons high in private self-consciousness than among those lower in private self-consciousness. Discussion centers on other health related applications of the optimism scale, and the relationships between our theoretical orientation and several related theories.
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“Concurrently, they are associated with an increased risk of depression,2829 and sadness is a core symptom of depression.12”
From Prevalence and Correlates of Suicidal Ideation among Psycho-Oncology Outpatients (2024) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“A tanult módszerek napi, rendszeres gyakorlása javítja a pszichológiai közérzetet, növeli az életerőt, és jótékony hatással van az életminőségre [30, 32].”
From Éber, tudatos figyelemre épülő, a rákbetegséggel való megküzdést segítő program (MBCR) hatásvizsgálata magyar rákbetegek körében (2017) · cites this paper as [30]
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“A 12 tételes mérőeszköz belső megbízhatósága elfogadható volt (Cronbach-alfa: 0,72).”
From Éber, tudatos figyelemre épülő, a rákbetegséggel való megküzdést segítő program (MBCR) hatásvizsgálata magyar rákbetegek körében (2017) · cites this paper as [30]
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“The importance of hope or optimism has long been recognized (1, 2).”
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“…and optimism are strongly negatively related to depression, neuroticism, and hopelessness (Robins, Tracy, Trzesniewski, Potter, & Gosling, 2001; Scheier & Carver, 1985) and, in conjunction with negative life events, can raise the risk of clinical depression (Andrews & Brown, 1993; Roberts,…”
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Marshall, G. N., Wortman, C. B., Kusulas, J. W., Hervig, L. K., & Vickers, R. R. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.62.6.1067 · Cited by 568
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“Optimism was measured using five out of eight items from the Life Orientation Scale (Scheier and Carver, 1985).”
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Segerstrom, S. C., Taylor, S. E., Kemeny, M. E., & Fahey, J. L. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1646 · Cited by 527
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“On the other hand, Scheier and Carver (1985) describe optimism as a generalized tendency to expect positive outcomes even in the face of obstacles.”
BackgroundMethodSu, R., Tay, L., & Diener, E. (2014) · Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12027 · Cited by 511
“In addition, the research of Scheier and colleagues (Rasmussen, Scheier, & Greenhouse, 2009; Scheier & Carver, 1985, 1987, 1992) demonstrated that optimism is a key predictor for physical health and an important aspect of positive functioning.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMindfulness-based relapse prevention for alcohol and substance use disorders
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Adams, T. B., Bezner, J. R., & Steinhardt, M. A. (1997) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.4278/0890-1171-11.3.208 · Cited by 545
Mindfulness meditation and substance use in an incarcerated population
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“The Life Orientation Test ( Scheier & Carver, 1985; .78) was used to measure optimism.”
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“The second test, the Life Orientation Test (LOT), measured dispositional optimism (Scheier and Carver, 1985).”
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“Two come from the scale developed by Scheier and Carver (1985).”
A Conceptual Model and Implications for Coping with Stressful Events in Police Work
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“The Life Orientation Test (LOT; Scheier and Carver 1985 ) was designed to measure optimism as it relates to outcome expectancies.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSituated Optimism: Specific Outcome Expectancies and Self-Regulation
Armor, D. A., & Taylor, S. E. (1998) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60386-x · Cited by 462
“Indeed, several researchers have suggested that the study of self-regulation may benefit from knowing people's outcome expectancies at a variety of levels of specificity (e.g., Lefcourt, 1976; Rotter, 1954; Scheier & Carver, 1985).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe role of meaning in life and optimism in promoting well-being
Ho, M. Y., Cheung, F. M., & Cheung, S. F. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.008 · Cited by 484
“As proposed by Scheier and Carver (1993), optimists may use more constructive coping strategies, while pessimists rely on more maladaptive approaches that render them more vulnerable to psychological distress.”
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Krause, N. (2003) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/58.3.s160 · Cited by 448
“Two come from the scale developed by Scheier and Carver (1985).”
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Epping-Jordan, J. E., Compas, B. E., Osowiecki, D. M., Oppedisano, G., Gerhardt, C., Primo, K., & Krag, D. N. (1999) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.18.4.315 · Cited by 448
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“Pessimism was measured by summing the four items assessing negative expectations from the Optimism-Pessimism Scale (26).”
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“The LOT (Scheier & Carver, 1985) was used to assess dispositional optimism.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTaylor, S. E., Way, B. M., Welch, W. T., Hilmert, C. J., Lehman, B. J., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2006) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.04.019 · Cited by 432
“Psychosocial resource measures included the Life Orientation Test, a measure of dispositional optimism (LOT; Scheier and Carver 1985), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale (Rosenberg 1965), the Pearlin Mastery Scale (Pearlin and Schooler 1978), and measures of social support (Schuster et al 1990).”
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What are the differences between happiness and self-esteem?
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“…components of psychological capital were represented by two items from the PCQ that were originally adapted from published hope (Snyder, Sympson, Ybasco, Borders, Babyak, & Higgins, 1996), resilience (Wagnild & Young, 1993), optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985), and efficacy (Parker, 1998) scales.”
MethodRetractedResilience to suicidality: The buffering hypothesis
Johnson, J., Wood, A. M., Gooding, P. A., Taylor, P. J., & Tarrier, N. (2011) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.12.007 · Cited by 463
“LOT= Life Orientation Test (Scheier & Carver, 1985).”
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“[18] noted that high scores on the pessimism items of the LOT (a measure of dispositional optimism) [1] significantly predicted premature death in young patients with breast cancer.”
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“To assess dispositional optimism, Scheier and Carver (1985) constructed the Life Orientation Test (LOT) consisting of four statements designed to reflect optimism (e.g., “In uncertain times, I usually expect the best”; “I’m always optimistic about my future”), four statements designed to reflect…”
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“The life orientation test (Scheier and Carver, 1985) is a five-item measure of trait optimism in which statements (e.g., ‘‘In uncertain times I usually expect the best”) are responded to on a 4-point Likert scale.”
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Wang, H., Sui, Y., Luthans, F., Wang, D., & Wu, Y. (2012) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.1850 · Cited by 416
“…draws from and adapted from widely recognized published standardized measures for each of the positive constructs that make up PsyCap as follows: (i) hope (Snyder et al., 1996); (ii) resiliency (Wagnild & Young, 1993); (iii) optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985); and (iv) self-efficacy (Parker, 1998).”
BackgroundResilience: A Meta‐Analytic Approach
Lee, M., Nam, S. K., Kim, A., Kim, B., Lee, M. Y., & Lee, S. M. (2013) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2013.00095.x · Cited by 479
Giltay, E. J., Geleijnse, J. M., Zitman, F. G., Hoekstra, T., & Schouten, E. G. (2004) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.11.1126 · Cited by 396
Sloman, S. A. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.024 · Cited by 412
Kramer, M. S., Lydon, J. E., Séguin, L., Goulet, L., Kahn, S. R., McNamara, H., Genest, J. J., Dassa, C., Chen, M. F., Sharma, S., et al. (2009) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwp061 · Cited by 395
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Optimism and Rehospitalization After Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery
Scheier, M. F., Matthews, K. A., Owens, J. F., Schulz, R., Bridges, M. W., Magovern, G. J., & Carver, C. S. (1999) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.159.8.829 · Cited by 383
“Optimism is defined as the generalized and stable expectation that good rather than bad outcomes will occur in one’s life.(8) Accumulating evidence(9-11) suggests that differences between people in their levels of optimism and pessimism can have important physical health consequences, including those related to recove…”
BackgroundSelf-citationReversed item bias: An integrative model.
Weijters, B., Baumgartner, H., & Schillewaert, N. (2013) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/a0032121 · Cited by 409
“For the grouped-massed condition, we used two additional items (both from the original LOT scale; Scheier & Carver, 1985), either ‘I always look on the bright side of things’ for the regular item first condition (p4) or ‘Things never work out the way I want them to’ for the reversed item first…”
MethodHeinen, I., Bullinger, M., & Kocalevent, R. (2017) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-016-0841-8 · Cited by 437
“Scheier MF, Carver CS. Optimism, coping, and health: assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies.”
MethodThe benefits of self-compassion and optimism exercises for individuals vulnerable to depression
Shapira, L. B., & Mongrain, M. (2010) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2010.516763 · Cited by 381
Item-wording and the dimensionality of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: do they matter?
Greenberger, E., Chen, C., Dmitrieva, J., & Farruggia, S. P. (2003) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(02)00331-8 · Cited by 380
Optimism, Vulnerability, and self-beliefs as health-related cognitions: A systematic overview
Schwarzer, R. (1994) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870449408407475 · Cited by 410
Assessing Fit in Ordinal Factor Analysis Models: SRMR vs. RMSEA
Shi, D., Maydeu‐Olivares, A., & Rosseel, Y. (2019) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2019.1611434 · Cited by 397
“The findings from this example were consistent with previous studies (Chang et al., 1994; Chang & McBride-Chang, 1996; Marshall, Wortman, Kusulas, Hervig, & Vickers, 1992; Robinson-Whelen, Kim, MacCallum, & Kiecolt-Glaser, 1997; Scheier & Carver, 1985).”
MethodDispositional and contextual perspectives on coping: Toward an integrative framework
Moos, R. H., & Holahan, C. J. (2003) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.10229 · Cited by 420
Peterson, S. J., Walumbwa, F. O., Byron, K. L., & Myrowitz, J. (2008) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206307312512 · Cited by 381
“CEO Positive Psychological Traits, Transformational Leadership, and Firm Performance in High-Technology Start-up and Established Firms† Suzanne J. Peterson* Fred O. Walumbwa School of Global Management and Leadership, Arizona State University, PO Box 37100, Phoenix, AZ 85069 Kristin Byron Whitman School of Management,…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAvoidance Personal Goals and Subjective Well-Being
Elliot, A. J., Sheldon, K. M., & Church, M. A. (1997) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167297239001 · Cited by 388
A Randomized Controlled Trial of Stress Reduction for Hypertension in Older African Americans
Schneider, R. H., Staggers, F., Alexander, C. N., Sheppard, W., Rainforth, M., Kondwani, K., Smith, S., & King, C. G. (1995) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/01.hyp.26.5.820 · Cited by 373
Posttraumatic growth and resilience to trauma: different sides of the same coin or different coins?
Westphal, M., & Bonanno, G. A. (2007) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00298.x · Cited by 373
In search of realistic optimism: Meaning, knowledge, and warm fuzziness.
Schneider, S. L. (2001) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.56.3.250 · Cited by 409
The Strength-Based Counseling Model
Smith, E. J. (2005) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000005277018 · Cited by 420
“Researchers have studied the strength of optimism (Carver & Scheier, 1990; Scheier & Carver, 1985; Seligman, 1991) and have determined that optimism is related to sound mental health.”
BackgroundIndividualism: A Valid and Important Dimension of Cultural Differences Between Nations
Schimmack, U., Oishi, S., & Diener, E. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0901_2 · Cited by 377
“…psychologists can learn from similar debates about the polarity of psychological constructs such as Positive Affect and Negative Affect (see Schimmack, Bockenholt, et al., 2002), optimism and pessimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985), and masculinity and femininity (Marsh, Antill, & Cunningham, 1989).”
BackgroundWhat is the relation between cultural orientation and socially desirable responding?
Lalwani, A. K., Shavitt, S., & Johnson, T. P. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.165 · Cited by 393
“SDE has been linked to such personality constructs as perceived control (Paulhus, 1991), optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985), self-controlling behavior (Paulhus, 1991), self-esteem (Paulhus, 1998a), social dominance (Paulhus, 1991), and a general sense of capability (Holden & Fekken, 1989).”
BackgroundSelf‐Regulation Processes and Health: The Importance of Optimism and Goal Adjustment
Rasmussen, H. N., Wrosch, C., Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (2006) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00426.x · Cited by 365
“It also has been suggested that in novel and in multidetermined situations the person's generalized expectations are useful in predicting behavior and emotions (Scheier & Carver, 1985).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPerceived stress and cortisol levels predict speed of wound healing in healthy male adults
Ebrecht, M., Hextall, J. M., Kirtley, L.-G., Taylor, A., Dyson, M., & Weinman, J. A. (2003) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/s0306-4530(03)00144-6 · Cited by 388
“Dispositional optimism (the habitual style of anticipating favourable outcomes) was assessed by the 8-item Life Orientation Test (LOT) designed by Scheier and Carver (1985).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialExperimentally analyzing the impact of leader positivity on follower positivity and performance
Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., & Luthans, F. (2011) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.02.004 · Cited by 415
“The PCQ items were adapted from published scales on hope (Snyder et al., 1996), efficacy (Parker, 1998), optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985) and resilience (Wagnild & Young, 1993).”
MethodPersonality and quality of life: The importance of optimism and goal adjustment
Wrosch, C., & Scheier, M. F. (2003) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1023/a:1023529606137 · Cited by 386
“The other approach, which we address here, defines optimism as a relatively stable, generalized expectation that good outcomes will occur across important life domains [ 69 ].”
BackgroundSelf-citationOptimism, pessimism, and postpartum depression
Carver, C. S., & Gaines, J. G. (1987) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf01175355 · Cited by 369
Self-citationBowling, A., Gabriel, Z., Dykes, J., Dowding, L. M., Evans, O., Fleissig, A., Banister, D., & Sutton, S. R. (2003) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/bf8g-5j8l-ytrf-6404 · Cited by 376
“…self-efficacy (mastery and control over life) (Schwarzer, 1993), perceived risks of negative life events (Sutton, 1998), optimism-pessimism bias (Scheier & Carver, 1985), health values (Lau, Hartman, & Ware, 1986), physical functional status (Bond & Carstairs, 1982; Martin, Meltzer, & Elliot,…”
Potential Added Value of Psychological Capital in Predicting Work Attitudes
Larson, M. D., & Luthans, F. (2006) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/10717919070130010701 · Cited by 367
Snyder, C. R. R. (2000) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012654050-5/50003-8 · Cited by 359
Relationship between positive psychological capital and creative performance
Sweetman, D., Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., & Luthans, B. C. (2010) · Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l Administration · doi:10.1002/cjas.175 · Cited by 406
Baker, B. L., Blacher, J., & Olsson, M. B. (2005) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00691.x · Cited by 355
Arslan, G., Yıldırım, M., Tanhan, A., Buluş, M., & Allen, K.-A. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00337-6 · Cited by 355
“Optimism has been associated with a person’s expectancies of good and bad outcomes (Scheier and Carver 1985).”
BackgroundSpirituality and religion in patients with HIV/AIDS
Cotton, S., Puchalski, C. M., Sherman, S. N., Mrus, J. M., Peterman, A. H., Feinberg, J., Pargäment, K. I., Justice, A. C., Leonard, A. C., & Tsevat, J. (2006) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00642.x · Cited by 371
A Model of Behavioral Self-Regulation: Translating Intention into Action
Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1988) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60230-0 · Cited by 363
Self-citationPsychometric properties and population‐based norms of the Life Orientation Test Revised (LOT‐R)
Glaesmer, H., Rief, W., Martin, A., Mewes, R., Brähler, E., Zenger, M., & Hinz, A. (2011) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8287.2011.02046.x · Cited by 361
Metadata
- Authors
- Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S.
- Affiliations
- Carnegie Mellon University (US)
- Venue
- Health Psychology
- Published
- 1985
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 219-247
- ISSN
- 0278-6133 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-7810
- OpenAlex
- W2170246810
- Cited by
- 6,690
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 155 · 2025: 235 · 2024: 198 · 2023: 218 · 2022: 288 · 2021: 287 · 2020: 320 · 2019: 263 · 2018: 241 · 2017: 222 · 2016: 295 · 2015: 277 · 2014: 274 · 2013: 261 · 2012: 272
- FWCI
- 24.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Health Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Carnegie Mellon University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Cancer survivorship and care
- Keywords
- dispositional optimism, optimism scale, psychometric properties, coping, somatic symptoms, symptom reporting, private self-consciousness, undergraduate students, health
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Attitude, Female, Humans, Male, Personality, Psychological Tests, Psychometrics, Psychophysiologic Disorders, Self Concept, Set, Psychology, Social Perception
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