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Implicit memory: History and current status.
Abstract
Memory for a recent event can be expressed explicitly, as conscious recollection, or implicitly, as a facilitation of test performance without conscious recollection. A growing number of recent studies have been concerned with implicit memory and its relation to explicit memory. This article presents an historical survey of observations concerning implicit memory, reviews the findings of contemporary experimental research, and delineates the strengths and weaknesses of alternative theoretical accounts of implicit memory. It is argued that dissociations between implicit and explicit memory have been documented across numerous tasks and subject populations, represent an important challenge for research and theory, and should be viewed in the context of other dissociations between implicit and explicit expressions of knowledge that have been documented in recent cognitive and neuropsychological research. Psychological studies of memory have traditionally relied on tests such as free recall, cued recall, and recognition. A prominent feature of these tests is that they make explicit reference to, and require conscious recollection of, a specific learning episode. During the past several years, however, increasing attention has been paid to experimental situations in which information that was encoded during a particular episode is subsequently expressed without conscious or deliberate recollection. Instead of being asked to try to remember recently presented information, subjects are simply required to perform a task, such as completing a graphemic fragment of a word, indicating
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“they involve different types of representation and are substantiated in separate parts of the brain”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Schacter, 1987
In the citing paper
“psychological research was independently investigating the dissociations between implicit and explicit memory ~Schacter, 1987! and between implicit and explicit learning ~Reber, Kassin, Lewis, & Cantor, 1980!”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Schacter, 1987
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“Implicit knowledge is considered a type of knowledge that learners cannot verbalize, despite evidence of having learned as detected from the learner's behavioral responses (Ellis, 2005, 2009; Schacter, 1987).”
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Dissociations of grammaticality and specific similarity effects in artificial grammar learning.
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“Alternatively, implicit face recognition has been conceptualized in terms of degraded representational quality, which would make it impossible for impoverished representations to become conscious (Farah, O’Reilly, & Vecera, 1993), or as a consequence of processing representations disconnected from later stages in cons…”
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Introduction to “Implicit memory: Multiple perspectives”
Schacter, D. L. (1990) · Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society · doi:10.3758/bf03334038 · Cited by 39
“…memory for information that was acquired during a specific episode and that is expressed on tests in which subjects are not required, and are frequently unable, to deliberately or consciously recollect the previously studied information or the episode itself (Graf & Schacter, 1985; Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Neuropsychology of Alzheimer’s Disease
Salmon, D. P., & Bondi, M. W. (1997) · Critical issues in neuropsychology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-1857-4_10 · Cited by 39
Repetition priming of nonwords in young and older adults.
Light, L. L., Voie, D. L., & Kennison, R. F. (1995) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.21.2.327 · Cited by 39
Subjective measures of unconscious knowledge of concepts
Ziori, E., & Dienes, Z. P. (2006) · Mind & Society · doi:10.1007/s11299-006-0012-4 · Cited by 38
Implicit Memory Function in Fibromyalgia Syndrome
Duschek, S., Werner, N. S., Winkelmann, A., & Wankner, S. (2013) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2012.708684 · Cited by 38
Dissociating explicit and implicit effects of cross-media advertising
Vandeberg, L., Murre, J. M. J., Voorveld, H. A. M., & Smit, E. G. (2015) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.2015.1011023 · Cited by 40
Contextual cueing based on specific and categorical properties of the environment
Goujon, A., Didierjean, A., & Cauzinille-Marmèche, É. (2006) · Visual Cognition · doi:10.1080/13506280600677744 · Cited by 38
“Contextual cueing tasks have also demonstrated another aspect of learning, its implicit nature (for reviews on implicit learning, see Cleeremans, Destrebecqz, & Boyer, 1998 ; Schacter, 1987 ), which is reflected by the fact that subjects rarely if ever report having noticed contextual regularities, yet contextual cuei…”
A review of recent research on spelling
Brown, A. S. (1990) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/bf01323630 · Cited by 38
“This latter type of memory is referred to as implicit memory (Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundThe slave of the passions: experiencing problems and selecting solutions
Overskeid, G. (2000) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.4.3.284 · Cited by 36
Warmington, M., & Hitch, G. J. (2014) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2013.807841 · Cited by 33
“Implicit memory refers to memory in the absence of conscious recollection of the prior experience and stands in contrast to explicit memory which does involve conscious recollection (see Schacter, 1987).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Schacter, D. L.
- Corresponding author
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- ORCID
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 1987-07
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 501-518
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2166869510
- Cited by
- 2,983
- References
- 177
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 53 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 69 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 74 · 2012: 85
- FWCI
- 56.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- implicit memory, declarative memory, memory dissociation, conscious recollection, free recall, recognition memory, cued recall
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