Implicit memory: History and current status.

“…have been debated extensively in the literature on perception and learning without awareness (e.g., Cheesman & Merikle, 1986; Eriksen, 1960; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977), and memory researchers would do well to attempt to incorporate some of the lessons from these investigations into research…”

“…been considered elusive, there is now accumulating evidence that various types of judgments are influenced by information that is not accessible to consciousness (for reviews, see Goschke, 1997; Greenwald, 1992; Kihlstrom, 1987; Lieberman, 2000; Perrig & Wippich, 1995; Reber, 1993; Schacter, 1987).”

“…the evolution of new theories of nonconscious or implicit memory and new tools with which to measure memory without relying on individuals’ conscious recollections of past events (Jacoby, 1991; Richardson-Klavehn and Bjork, 1988; Roediger, 1990; Roediger and McDermott, 1993; Schacter, 1987).”

“, , , 6 Hasher, 1987) or explicit ' (Schacter, 1987) memory tests.”

“Studies on neurological patient populations and health subjects suggest that a typical learning situation results in the formation of two distinct mental representations, one explicit and one implicit (e.g., Milner, Corkin, & Teuber, 1968; Schacter, 1987).”

“To establish a connection between implicit memory and the role it plays in the stereotyping effect reported in this article, we borrow the term implicit from recent research on memory in which the term describes effects attributed to unreportable residues of prior experiences (Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Roedige…”

“A number of experimental manipulations have produced implicit/explicit dissociations and delineated various features of priming (see Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Schacter, 1987).”

“It is also worth noting here that, just as for visual stimuli (e.g., Schacter, 1987), the tactile qualities of a given product might be implicitly associated with a given brand (cf. Ballesteros & Reales, 2004).”

“The basic feature of priming is the reference to the unconscious facilitation of performance following prior exposure to a target item (33).”

“The study of the implicit–explicit distinction may help us to better understand issues concerning consciousness by identifying physical mechanisms and processes correlated with consciousness (Dienes & Perner, 1999; Reber, 1989; Schacter, 1987; Sun, 1997, 1999).”

“For example, a strong distinction has been made between tasks that assess explicit and implicit memory (Schacter, 1987), and some intriguing dissociations in performance across transformations of size and mirror re ection have been found between implicit and explicit tasks (Biederman & Cooper,…”

“…developed Go/No-go association task (Nosek & Banaji, 2001). the definition of implicit memory as something that is “revealed when previous experiences facilitate performance on a task that does not require conscious or intentional recollection of these experiences” (Schacter, 1987, p. 501).”

“Memory research rests heavily on the distinction between explicit and implicit memory (Schacter, 1987; Squire, Knowlton, & Musen, 1993).”

“A growing body of evidence indicates that implicit and explicit memory can be dissociated experimentally in normal subjects (for review, see Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Schacter, 1987; Tulving & Schacter, 1990).”

“Some of these dissociations have been provided by experiments demonstrating that braindamaged amnesic patients with severe impairments of explicit memory can exhibit intact implicit memory; others come from studies showing that specific experimental variables produce different and even opposite effects on explicit and…”

“Familiarity-based recognition judgments are sometimes said (e.g., Gardiner & Java, 1990, 1991; Gardiner & Parkin, 1990; Mandler, 1988, 1990) to derive from the same form of priming that supports “implicit” behavioral measures of memory ( Schacter, 1987 )., Schacter, 1987 ). 2. The latency of the P3 is known to vary bo…”

“The dissociation between factors that may affect explicit recognition memory (the "same" episodic shape judgments in Experiment 2) and perceptual processing (the naming in Experiments 1 and 3) is a well-documented characteristic of repetition priming (e.g., Jacoby & Dallas, 1981; Schacter, 1987).”

“The ‘¿ explicit'omponent of secondary memory refers to those memories of which we are, or can be made, consciously aware (Shimarnura, 1986; Schacter, 1987; Tulving & Schacter, 1990), and, by definition, ‘¿ explicitmemory' is severely impaired in Korsakoff patients.”

“…is spared and declarative memory is severely defective, the mirror paradigm, in which a procedural deficit is linked to relative sparing of a declarative one, is rather unusual (Schacter, 1985, 1987; Heindel et al., 1989; Deweer et al., 1993; Pascual-Leone et al., 1993; Butters et al., 1994).”

“Recent research has been sparked by the demonstrations of dissociations between explicit memory, the conscious recollection of previously studied material, and implicit memory, the facilitation of task performance by previously studied material without intentional recollection (for reviews, see RichardsonKlavehn & Bjo…”

“Cryptomnesia has been studied in the context of implicit memory phenomena as an extreme instance of source amnesia (Schacter, 1987; Schacter, Harbluk, & McLachlan, 1984).”

“…patients with medial temporal lobe lesions that include at least parts of the cortex near the rhinal sulcus, in spite of having poor recognition memory, show essentially normal enhancement of performance by prior experience, that is, intact priming (Milner, 1970; Shimamura, 1986; Schacter, 1987).”

“…of semantic and nonsemantic study processing on performance of implicit and explicit tests, as well as a number of other implicit/explicit dissociations reported in the literature (for discussion, see Hayman & Tulving, 1989b; Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Roediger etal., 1989; Schacter, 1987).”

“This dissociation between factors that may affect recognition memory (for left-right orientation in the present case) and perceptual processing is a well-documented characteristic of repetition priming (Schacter, 1987; Jacoby & Dallas, 1981).”

“The facilitatory (or inhibitory) effect of performance due to previous exposure to the particular information is viewed as an implicit memory measure (Schacter, 1987).”

“This form of memory representation has been labeled working, declarative, explicit, or data-based memory (Kesner and DiMattia 1987; Olton 1983; Schacter 1987; Squire and Zola-Morgan 1991).”

“Implicit measures of learning often times show a greater dependence on the superficial similarity between training and testing contexts (see Schacter, 1987 for a review).”

“Squire (1992) has argued eloquently for the distinction between declarative and nondeclarative forms of memory, as has Schacter (1987).”

“Whereas traditional explicit or direct memory tests require individuals to think back to a previous experience, and recall or recognize past events, priming is usually assessed using indirect or implicit test”

“, Hart, 1967; Loftus & Wickens, 1970; Murdock, 1966), as well as with open-ended and fill-in-the-blank questionnaires (which are commonly used to assess implicit memory; see Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Schacter, 1987).”

“This outstanding prominence of the IAT reflects several factors, such as unrestricted availability on the Internet, affinity to the modern notion of implicit cognition (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Roediger, 1990; Schacter, 1987), and the strong and significant results almost guaranteed in IAT studies (cf.”

“In the model we have been developing (Johnson, 1997a, b), linguistic categories such as the words hood and hud are composed of detailed instances in memory; likewise, the perceptual representation of a talker is composed of detailed instances in memory (Schacter, 1987).”

“…events are perceived by a mechanism that does not involve consciously controlled processes, and which, of course, interacts with phylogenetically and ontogenetically more sophisticated memory mechanisms (cf. implicit as opposed to explicit memory , see Graf& Schacter, 1985; Schacter, 1987).”

“Schacter (1987) and Roediger (1990) provide extensive reviews of this work.”

“Schacter (1987) reviewed the history of developments in psychology that led to the introduction of “implicit” in the field of memory research.”

“(see, e.g., Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Roediger, 1990; Schacter, 1987) are due to the activation of longterm memory information outside the focus of attention.”

“Arguments for multiple systems have come from such diverse fields as memory (Mishkin, Malamut, & Bachevalier, 1984; Schacter, 1987; Squire, 1992), reasoning (Sloman, 1996), motor learning (Willingham, Nissen, & Bullemer, 1989), discrimination learning (Kendler & Kendler, 1962), and function learning (Hayes & Broadbent…”

“In many cases, these results bear a striking resemblance to the results found in comparisons between performance in explicit and implicit memory tests (for reviews, see Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Schacter, 1987).”

“There is much research demonstrating implicit learning (Reber, 1993) and implicit memory (Schacter, 1987).”

“01990 Academic Press, Inc. Implicit memory tests are defined as tests that do not require conscious recollection of a prior study episode for their successful completion (Schacter, 1987); nevertheless, they show a benefit in performance from the previously studied episode.”

“…memory, when studied in the laboratory, refer to a change in one’s ability to identify or produce an item as a result of specific prior encounters either with the item itself (repetition priming) or a related item (semantic and associative priming) (see Schacter, 1987; Tulving & Schacter, 1990).”

“In contrast, implicit memory involves memory effects that occur without intentional or conscious recollection of such an event (Graf and Schacter 1985, 1987; Law and Braun-LaTour 2004).”

“People with normally functioning memory also show dissociations in their performance on direct versus indirect tests of memory (for reviews, see Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Roediger, 1990; Schacter, 1987).”

“Memory is not a single faculty but is composed of multiple abilities supported by distinct brain systems (Tulving 1985; Schacter 1987; Weiskrantz 1987; Squire 1992; Schacter and Tulving 1994).”

“…repeatedly demonstrated (Reber, 1967); maintaining evidence from past experience, also known as memory, can happen outside of conscious awareness (Schacter, 1987); people can extract information about emotion and gender from subliminally presented facial expressions (Jiang, Costello, Fang,…”