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Implicit memory: History and current status.
Abstract
Memory for a recent event can be expressed explicitly, as conscious recollection, or implicitly, as a facilitation of test performance without conscious recollection. A growing number of recent studies have been concerned with implicit memory and its relation to explicit memory. This article presents an historical survey of observations concerning implicit memory, reviews the findings of contemporary experimental research, and delineates the strengths and weaknesses of alternative theoretical accounts of implicit memory. It is argued that dissociations between implicit and explicit memory have been documented across numerous tasks and subject populations, represent an important challenge for research and theory, and should be viewed in the context of other dissociations between implicit and explicit expressions of knowledge that have been documented in recent cognitive and neuropsychological research. Psychological studies of memory have traditionally relied on tests such as free recall, cued recall, and recognition. A prominent feature of these tests is that they make explicit reference to, and require conscious recollection of, a specific learning episode. During the past several years, however, increasing attention has been paid to experimental situations in which information that was encoded during a particular episode is subsequently expressed without conscious or deliberate recollection. Instead of being asked to try to remember recently presented information, subjects are simply required to perform a task, such as completing a graphemic fragment of a word, indicating
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“they involve different types of representation and are substantiated in separate parts of the brain”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Schacter, 1987
In the citing paper
“psychological research was independently investigating the dissociations between implicit and explicit memory ~Schacter, 1987! and between implicit and explicit learning ~Reber, Kassin, Lewis, & Cantor, 1980!”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Schacter, 1987
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Fluent Conceptual Processing and Explicit Memory for Faces Are Electrophysiologically Distinct
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“In contrast, amnesia can leave intact a set of memory capabilities that operate independent of conscious remembering, known collectively as “implicit memory” (Schacter, 1987; Gabrieli, 1998).”
BackgroundEquivalent impairment of spatial and nonspatial memory following damage to the human hippocampus
Cave, C. B., & Squire, L. R. (1991) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.450010323 · Cited by 140
THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL ISSUES IN THE STUDY OF IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT SECOND-LANGUAGE LEARNING
Hulstijn, J. H. (2005) · Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) · doi:10.1017/s0272263105050082 · Cited by 136
New product failure: Five potential sources discussed
Dijksterhuis, G. (2016) · Trends in Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2016.01.016 · Cited by 141
The frequency of voluntary and involuntary autobiographical memories across the life span
Rubin, D. C., & Berntsen, D. (2009) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/37.5.679 · Cited by 152
“In contrast, most research on implicit memory has equated the distinction between conscious and unconscious memory with a distinction between intentional and unintentional retrieval (see, e.g., Schacter, Bowers, & Booker, 1989; but see Kinoshita, 2001; Schacter, 1987, for discussions).”
Schacter, D. L., & Buckner, R. L. (1998) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1006/nlme.1998.3854 · Cited by 136
“, & Schacter, D. L. (1990). Priming and human memory systems.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationAdult Age Differences in Direct and Indirect Tests of Memory
Hultsch, D. F., Masson, M. E. J., & Small, B. J. (1991) · Journal of Gerontology · doi:10.1093/geronj/46.1.p22 · Cited by 136
“These tests have been referred to as indirect or implicit memory tests (Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Schacter, 1987).”
MethodThe Cambridge Handbook of Personality Psychology
(2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822 · Cited by 148
Implicit and explicit memory bias in anxiety: A conceptual replication
MacLeod, C., & McLaughlin, K. (1995) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)e0004-3 · Cited by 135
Neural Correlates of Auditory Repetition Priming: Reduced fMRI Activation in the Auditory Cortex
Bergerbest, D., Ghahremani, D. G., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2004) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/0898929041502760 · Cited by 137
“It is classified as a form of implicit memory because priming is dissociable from performance in explicit memory tests, such as recall or recognition, where participants are explicitly asked to recollect previously presented items from memory ( Schacter, 1987; Graf & Schacter, 1985).”
BackgroundTailby, R., & Haslam, C. (2003) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(03)00036-8 · Cited by 134
Lexical priming deficits as a function of age.
Davis, H. P., Cohen, A., Gandy, M., Colombo, P. J., VanDusseldorp, G., Simolke, N., & Romano, J. (1990) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/0735-7044.104.2.288 · Cited by 134
Voss, J. L., & Paller, K. A. (2008) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.07.010 · Cited by 133
Metadata
- Authors
- Schacter, D. L.
- Corresponding author
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- ORCID
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 1987-07
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 501-518
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2166869510
- Cited by
- 2,983
- References
- 177
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 53 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 69 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 74 · 2012: 85
- FWCI
- 56.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- implicit memory, declarative memory, memory dissociation, conscious recollection, free recall, recognition memory, cued recall
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