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Implicit memory: History and current status.
Abstract
Memory for a recent event can be expressed explicitly, as conscious recollection, or implicitly, as a facilitation of test performance without conscious recollection. A growing number of recent studies have been concerned with implicit memory and its relation to explicit memory. This article presents an historical survey of observations concerning implicit memory, reviews the findings of contemporary experimental research, and delineates the strengths and weaknesses of alternative theoretical accounts of implicit memory. It is argued that dissociations between implicit and explicit memory have been documented across numerous tasks and subject populations, represent an important challenge for research and theory, and should be viewed in the context of other dissociations between implicit and explicit expressions of knowledge that have been documented in recent cognitive and neuropsychological research. Psychological studies of memory have traditionally relied on tests such as free recall, cued recall, and recognition. A prominent feature of these tests is that they make explicit reference to, and require conscious recollection of, a specific learning episode. During the past several years, however, increasing attention has been paid to experimental situations in which information that was encoded during a particular episode is subsequently expressed without conscious or deliberate recollection. Instead of being asked to try to remember recently presented information, subjects are simply required to perform a task, such as completing a graphemic fragment of a word, indicating
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“they involve different types of representation and are substantiated in separate parts of the brain”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Schacter, 1987
In the citing paper
“psychological research was independently investigating the dissociations between implicit and explicit memory ~Schacter, 1987! and between implicit and explicit learning ~Reber, Kassin, Lewis, & Cantor, 1980!”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Schacter, 1987
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BackgroundUnitization and grouping mediate dissociations in memory for new associations.
Graf, P., & Schacter, D. L. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.15.5.930 · Cited by 244
“The importance of this distinction is underlined by a growing body of evidence that experimental manipulations and subject factors produce dissociations between explicit and implicit remembering (for reviews see Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Schacter, 1987; Shimamura, 1986).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMood-congruent memory in depression: Emotional priming or elaboration?
Watkins, P. C., Mathews, A., Williamson, D. A., & Fuller, R. D. (1992) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.101.3.581 · Cited by 181
Implicit learning of new verbal associations.
Hartman, M., Knopman, D. S., & Nissen, M. J. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.15.6.1070 · Cited by 180
Impaired priming of new associations in amnesia.
Shimamura, A. P., & Squire, L. R. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.15.4.721 · Cited by 180
“One aspect of memory that has been studied extensively in amnesic patients is the phenomenon of priming (for reviews, see Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Schacter, 1987; Shimamura, 1986).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialReder, L. M., Park, H., & Kieffaber, P. D. (2009) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0013974 · Cited by 188
“, & Schacter, D. (1994). Perceptual specificity of auditory”
InfluentialAvilés, J. M. R., & Ballesteros, S. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.25.3.644 · Cited by 176
Cognitive dysfunction with aging and the role of inflammation
Simen, A. A., Bordner, K. A., Martin, M. P., Moy, L. A., & Barry, L. C. (2011) · Therapeutic Advances in Chronic Disease · doi:10.1177/2040622311399145 · Cited by 186
“One study tested individuals of various ages on knowledge of events occurring from the 1930s to the 1990s, and showed that general knowledge about such historical facts (which required semantic memory) was found to be positively correlated with age [Schacter Daniel, 1987].”
BackgroundOttaway, S. A., Hayden, D. C., & Oakes, M. A. (2001) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.19.2.97.20706 · Cited by 183
“Since the mid 1980s, numerous researchers have focused their effort on examining a variety of types of implicit cognition, including implicit memory (Roediger, 1990a; Schacter, 1987), implicit learning (Stadler & Frensch, 1997), implicit reasoning (Sloman, 1996), and implicit social cognition (Fazio, 1990; Greenwald &…”
BackgroundPersuasion and Attitude Change
Petty, R. E., Wheeler, S. C., & Tormala, Z. L. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei0515 · Cited by 178
Schott, B. H., Henson, R. N., Richardson‐Klavehn, A., Becker, C., Thoma, V., Heinze, H., & Düzel, E. (2005) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0409070102 · Cited by 175
Balota, D. A. (1991) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/0093-934x(91)90124-j · Cited by 175
“Repetition priming effects have recently played a central role in the memory literature because of their relationship to implicit/procedural memory (see Schacter, 1987, for a review).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Schacter, D. L.
- Corresponding author
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- ORCID
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 1987-07
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 501-518
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2166869510
- Cited by
- 2,983
- References
- 177
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 53 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 69 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 74 · 2012: 85
- FWCI
- 56.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- implicit memory, declarative memory, memory dissociation, conscious recollection, free recall, recognition memory, cued recall
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