The DOI matches its Crossref record; 176 of the 177 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Implicit memory: History and current status.
Abstract
Memory for a recent event can be expressed explicitly, as conscious recollection, or implicitly, as a facilitation of test performance without conscious recollection. A growing number of recent studies have been concerned with implicit memory and its relation to explicit memory. This article presents an historical survey of observations concerning implicit memory, reviews the findings of contemporary experimental research, and delineates the strengths and weaknesses of alternative theoretical accounts of implicit memory. It is argued that dissociations between implicit and explicit memory have been documented across numerous tasks and subject populations, represent an important challenge for research and theory, and should be viewed in the context of other dissociations between implicit and explicit expressions of knowledge that have been documented in recent cognitive and neuropsychological research. Psychological studies of memory have traditionally relied on tests such as free recall, cued recall, and recognition. A prominent feature of these tests is that they make explicit reference to, and require conscious recollection of, a specific learning episode. During the past several years, however, increasing attention has been paid to experimental situations in which information that was encoded during a particular episode is subsequently expressed without conscious or deliberate recollection. Instead of being asked to try to remember recently presented information, subjects are simply required to perform a task, such as completing a graphemic fragment of a word, indicating
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“they involve different types of representation and are substantiated in separate parts of the brain”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Schacter, 1987
In the citing paper
“psychological research was independently investigating the dissociations between implicit and explicit memory ~Schacter, 1987! and between implicit and explicit learning ~Reber, Kassin, Lewis, & Cantor, 1980!”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Schacter, 1987
Citations
Cites
Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes.
Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.3.231 · Cited by 11,317 · cited 2×
“…have been debated extensively in the literature on perception and learning without awareness (e.g., Cheesman & Merikle, 1986; Eriksen, 1960; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977), and memory researchers would do well to attempt to incorporate some of the lessons from these investigations into research…”
BackgroundMethodPhilosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. B
Press, H. (1886) · Cited by 10,087
(1978) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona) · Cited by 8,010
(1983) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 6,051
Tulving, E. (1985) · Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/h0080017 · Cited by 4,638
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory
Bourne, L. E. (1977) · Cited by 4,328
Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory
Craik, F. I. M., & Tulving, E. (1975) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.104.3.268 · Cited by 4,121
(2007) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.4135/9781446212967.n15 · Cited by 3,749
Attentional requirements of learning: Evidence from performance measures
Nissen, M. J., & Bullemer, P. (1987) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(87)90002-8 · Cited by 2,966
Rosch, E. H., & Lloyd, B. (2024) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781032633275 · Cited by 2,869
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–600 of 1,007
Multiple systems of category learning
Smith, E. E., & Grossman, M. (2007) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.07.009 · Cited by 98
“Implicit LTM is essentially defined negatively: it is used with no awareness, and is not mediated by the prefrontal cortex, the posterior parietal cortex, nor the medial temporal lobe (e.g., Schacter, 1987; Schacter and Buckner, 1998).”
Implicit Learning and Tacit Knowledge
Reber, A. S. (1996) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195106589.001.0001 · Cited by 100
Long-term repetition effects for motoric and perceptual procedures.
Fendrich, D. W., Healy, A. F., & Bourne, L. E. (1991) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.17.1.137 · Cited by 98
Objective and subjective memory impairment in pregnancy
Brindle, P. M., Brown, M. W., Brown, J. L., Griffith, H. B., & TURNER, G. M. (1991) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291700022285 · Cited by 98
“That such priming does not necessitate explicit memory is shown by results from patients suffering from the classical organic amnesic syndrome (Squire, 1986; Mayes, 1988): amnesic patients show essentially normal word-completion priming combined with grossly impaired recognition for the previously presented list (Shim…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe psychological unconscious: Found, lost, and regained.
Kihlstrom, J. F., Barnhardt, T. M., & Tataryn, D. J. (1992) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.47.6.788 · Cited by 98
Enhancement of word completion priming in amnesics by cueing with previously novel associates
Mayes, A. R., & Gooding, P. A. (1989) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(89)90185-1 · Cited by 98
Dissociation of the acute effects of alcohol on implicit and explicit memory processes
Lister, R. G., Gorenstein, C., Risher‐Flowers, D., Weingartner, H. J., & Eckardt, M. J. (1991) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(91)90034-6 · Cited by 97
Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511996481.017 · Cited by 97
Toomer, M., & Elgort, I. (2019) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12335 · Cited by 105
Directed forgetting of recently recalled autobiographical memories.
Barnier, A. J., Conway, M. A., Mayoh, L., Speyer, J., Avizmil, O., & Harris, C. B. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.136.2.301 · Cited by 96
“Memories that are available and accessible can be consciously brought to awareness (as indexed by explicit memory tests), memories that are available but not currently accessible remain outside of awareness but may influence ongoing experience (as indexed by implicit memory tests; Schacter, 1987), and memories that ar…”
BackgroundComputational Models of Implicit Learning
Cleeremans, A., & Dienes, Z. P. (2001) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816772.018 · Cited by 97
“Findings of " learning without awareness " have also been reported with normal subjects (Cleeremans, Destrebecqz, & Boyer, 1998).”
BackgroundKopelman, M. D. (1999) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/026432999380762 · Cited by 96
Cross-modality priming in stem completion reflects conscious memory, but not voluntary memory
Richardson‐Klavehn, A., & Gardiner, J. M. (1996) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03212425 · Cited by 97
Long-term memory in amnesia: Cued recall, recognition memory, and confidence ratings.
Shimamura, A. P., & Squire, L. R. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.14.4.763 · Cited by 97
“One important feature of amnesia is that it is selective and does not extend to all kinds of learning and memory (for reviews see Schacter, 1987; Shimamura, in press-a; Squire, 1987; Weiskrantz, 1987).”
BackgroundRecognition Memory and Recollective Experience in Alzheimer's Disease
Barba, G. D. (1997) · Memory · doi:10.1080/741941546 · Cited by 96
Woollams, A. M., Taylor, J. R., Karayanidis, F., & Henson, R. N. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20076 · Cited by 94
“Indeed, such changes can often occur in the absence of conscious memory for the prior exposure, an example of ‘‘implicit’’ memory (Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundOn the Evolution of Interpreting Strategies in Simultaneous Interpreting
Riccardi, A. (2005) · Meta Journal des traducteurs · doi:10.7202/011016ar · Cited by 95
“The implicit components of a task are acquired through repeated exposure and practice (Schacter 1987).”
BackgroundImplicit scene learning is viewpoint dependent
Chua, K.-P., & Chun, M. M. (2003) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03194784 · Cited by 95
“Implicit learning refers to learning without explicit awareness that learning took place (Jacoby & Witherspoon, 1982; Schacter, 1987; Squire, 1992).”
BackgroundImplicit memory bias for threat in posttraumatic stress disorder
Amir, N., McNally, R. J., & Wiegartz, P. S. (1996) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf02227965 · Cited by 95
“According to Schacter (1987) , "Implicit memory is revealed when previous experiences facilitate performance on a task that does not require conscious or intentional recollection of those experiences; explicit memory is revealed when performance on a task requires conscious recollection of previous experiences" (p. 50…”
BackgroundCorrelational analyses of explicit and implicit memory performance
Perruchet, P., & Baveux, P. (1989) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03199559 · Cited by 95
Bayles, K. A., Tomoeda, C. K., & Trosset, M. W. (1990) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/0093-934x(90)90158-d · Cited by 94
Mimicking disliked others: Effects of a priori liking on the mimicry‐liking link
Stel, M., Blascovich, J., McCall, C., Mastop, J., van Baaren, R. B., & Vonk, R. (2009) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.655 · Cited by 93
Memory for Unconsciously Perceived Events: Evidence from Anesthetized Patients
Merikle, P. M., & Daneman, M. (1996) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1006/ccog.1996.0031 · Cited by 92
“The major reason indirect tests have been favored is the widespread assumption that indirect or implicit tests are more sensitive measures of unconscious perception and memory than are direct or explicit tests (e.g., Ghoneim & Block, 1992; Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundImpact of Health Labels on Flavor Perception and Emotional Profiling: A Consumer Study on Cheese
Schouteten, J. J., Steur, H. D., Pelsmaeker, S. D., Lagast, S., Bourdeaudhuij, I. D., & Gellynck, X. (2015) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu7125533 · Cited by 91
“The priming theory is initially developed in cognitive psychology [18,19] and comprises two phases.”
BackgroundStallen, M., Smidts, A., Rijpkema, M., Smit, G., Klucharev, V. A., & Fernández, G. (2010) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.joep.2010.03.006 · Cited by 94
“Another (non-exclusive) explanation is that the perception of a celebrity face triggers the retrieval of implicit memories, i.e. memories that are independent of conscious remembering (Schacter, 1987; Schacter and Buckner, 1998).”
BackgroundThe dissociation of explicit and implicit memory in depressed patients
Bazin, N., Perruchet, P., de Bonis, M., & Féline, A. (1994) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291700027008 · Cited by 93
“While performing an implicit memory task, subjects may make use of the explicit remembering of the study list if they discover that some of the to-be-produced items have been previously displayed (Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundDirect and indirect tests of memory for category exemplars in young and older adults.
Light, L. L., & Owens, S. A. A. (1989) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.4.4.487 · Cited by 93
Roediger, H. L., III, & Challis, B. H. (1992) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.18.1.3 · Cited by 93
When priming persists: Long-lasting implicit memory for a single episode in amnesic patients
McAndrews, M. P., Glisky, E. L., & Schacter, D. L. (1987) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(87)90074-1 · Cited by 94
Self-citationNeurophysiology of Remembering
Buzsáki, G., McKenzie, S., & Davachi, L. (2022) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-021721-110002 · Cited by 84
“Early taxonomies of memory have been separated into verbal declarative (or explicit) versus nondeclarative (or implicit) forms (Schacter 1987, Squire 1992).”
BackgroundTrauma in the Preverbal Period
Gaensbauer, T. J. (1995) · The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child · doi:10.1080/00797308.1995.11822399 · Cited by 92
Lull, R. B., & Bushman, B. J. (2015) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000018 · Cited by 93
“There is a possibility that implicit measures may differ from explicit measures (see Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundOn measuring (in)dependence of cognitive processes.
Howe, M. L., Rabinowitz, F. M., & Grant, M. J. (1993) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.100.4.737 · Cited by 92
Shobe, K. K., & Kihlstorm, J. F. (1997) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep11512658 · Cited by 130
Young consumer-brand relationship building potential using digital marketing
Confos, N., & Davis, T. (2016) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/ejm-07-2015-0430 · Cited by 91
Inhibitory effect of schematic processing on perceptual encoding.
von Hippel, W., Jonides, J., Hilton, J. L., & Narayan, S. (1993) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.64.6.921 · Cited by 90
Moral leadership: Explicating the moral component of authentic leadership
Hannah, S. T., Lester, P. B., & Lester, G. V. (2005) · Cited by 90
Glisky, E. L., & Schacter, D. L. (1989) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(89)90093-6 · Cited by 91
Self-citationAn integrative review of process dissociation and related models in social cognition
Payne, B. K., & Bishara, A. J. (2009) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280903162177 · Cited by 94
The Neural Basis of the Dynamic Unconscious
Berlin, H. A. (2011) · Neuropsychoanalysis · doi:10.1080/15294145.2011.10773654 · Cited by 96
“, & Schacter, D. L. (1987). Neurochemical dissociation of memory systems.”
BackgroundTheories of food choice development
Köster, E. P., & Mojet, J. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1533/9781845692506.1.93 · Cited by 93
SIMULATING FACE RECOGNITION: IMPLICATIONS FOR MODELLING COGNITION
Young, A. W. (1999) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/026432999380960 · Cited by 90
Perceptual Priming Versus Explicit Memory: Dissociable Neural Correlates at Encoding
Schott, B. H., Richardson‐Klavehn, A., Heinze, H., & Düzel, E. (2002) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/08989290260045828 · Cited by 90
“, voluntary explicit memory), they nevertheless most probably experienced involuntary explicit memory for studied words during test performance (Curran, 1999; Paller & Kutas, 1992; Paller et al., 1995; Richardson-Klavehn, Gardiner, et al., 1994; RichardsonKlavehn, Lee, et al., 1994; Richardson-Klavehn & Gardiner, 1995…”
BackgroundEffects of lorazepam upon recollective experience in recognition memory
Curran, H. V., Gardiner, J. M., Java, R. I., & Allen, D. (1993) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf02251297 · Cited by 89
Green, R., & Shanks, D. R. (1993) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03208263 · Cited by 90
The development of personality across the lifespan
Donnellan, M. B., & Robins, R. W. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511596544.015 · Cited by 89
Implicit and explicit memory for emotional information in non-clinical subjects
Bradley, B. P., Mogg, K., & Williams, R. (1994) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)90085-x · Cited by 89
Foulkes, D. (1990) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541449008406196 · Cited by 89
Naito, M. (1990) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(90)90081-i · Cited by 89
Green, J. T., & Woodruff‐Pak, D. S. (2000) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.1.138 · Cited by 91
“humans (Schacter, 1987), is critically linked to the integrity of the”
BackgroundConceptual priming in fragment completion.
Hirshman, E., Snodgrass, J. G., Mindes, J., & Feenan, K. (1990) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.16.4.634 · Cited by 89
Impariments of Visual awareness
Young, A. W., & de Haan, E. H. F. (1990) · Mind & Language · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0017.1990.tb00151.x · Cited by 89
Implicit memory bias in depression
Watkins, P. C. (2002) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930143000536 · Cited by 88
“Similarly, Smith and Branscombe (1988) found that exposing participants to various trait words later affected their trait judgements of somewhat ambiguous descriptions of behaviour.”
BackgroundZimmer, H. D., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2010) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.01.014 · Cited by 91
“When an item is presented a second time in a cognitive task, participants’ performances are usually enhanced compared to the first presentation of the item, even though the task does not refer to remembering (Schacter, 1987).”
Memory and awareness in a patient with multiple personality disorder
Nissen, M. J., Ross, J. L., Willingham, D. B., Mackenzie, T. B., & Schacter, D. L. (1988) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/0278-2626(88)90043-7 · Cited by 88
“We shall refer to this kind of memory as implicit memory (Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationVerbal recall in amnesiacs under conditions of diminished retroactive interference
Cowan, N. (2004) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awh107 · Cited by 87
“However, they will forget these events within ~1 min and thereafter could no longer retrieve them in a direct test (Scoville and Milner, 1957; Baddeley and Warrington, 1970; Cohen, 1984; Schacter, 1987; Squire and Knowlton, 2000; Kopelman, 2002).”
BackgroundAuditory Priming within and across Modalities: Evidence from Positron Emission Tomography
Badgaiyan, R. D., Schacter, D. L., & Alpert, N. M. (1999) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892999563463 · Cited by 87
“In a comparison of within- and cross-modality visual stem completion priming, Richardson-Klavehn and Gardiner (1996) further reaned this notion by distinguishing different aspects of conscious recollection, one dimension involving intentional/unintentional retrieval and another involving awareness/unawareness of the s…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationKihlstrom, J. F., & Cork, R. C. (2007) · Blackwell Publishing Ltd eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470751466.ch50 · Cited by 86
Temperament and brain networks of attention
Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2018) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0254 · Cited by 95
Item availability in cryptomnesia: Assessing its role in two paradigms of unconscious plagiarism.
Marsh, R. L., & Landau, J. D. (1995) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.21.6.1568 · Cited by 86
“Our decision to use an LDT was based on the conventional wisdom that the task measures item activation with faster RTs associated with greater strength (e.g., Forster & Davis, 1984, p. 680; Johnson & Hasher, 1987, p. 633; Schacter, 1987, p. 513 ).”
MethodWhittlesea, B. W. A. (1997) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60503-4 · Cited by 97
Predictive coding, precision and synchrony
Friston, K. J. (2012) · Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17588928.2012.691277 · Cited by 82
“Investigations of repetition priming have a long and rich history and have described a variety of behavioral changes that reveal past exposure to the environment (e.g., Roediger, 1990; Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundAnomalies in Cognition: Olfactory Memory
Zucco, G. M. (2003) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027//1016-9040.8.2.77 · Cited by 85
“They applied the criteria of multiple memory systems (MMS) theories (see Roediger, Rajaram, & Srivinas, 1990; Sherry & Schacter, 1987; Schacter & Tulving, 1994), according to which different memory systems are governed by different and distinct mechanisms.”
Dissociative effect of massed repetition on implicit and explicit measures of memory.
Challis, B. H., & Sidhu, R. (1993) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.19.1.115 · Cited by 85
Unconscious memory bias in depression: Perceptual and conceptual processes.
Watkins, P. C., Martin, C. K., & Stern, L. D. (2000) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.109.2.282 · Cited by 85
“Implicit memory has been an important topic in cognitive psychology for the past 15 years (for reviews, see Roediger, 1990; Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundTests of Dual Process Theory: Word Priming and Recognition
Mandler, G., Hamson, C. O., & Dorfman, J. (1990) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640749008401246 · Cited by 85
“Dual process theory addresses the distinction between implicit and explicit memories (Schacter, 1987) not in terms of different memory systems but, rather, as different processes operating on the same underlying representations (Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988).”
BackgroundImplicit memory in Alzheimer's disease: A meta-analysis.
Meiran, N., & Jelícic, M. (1995) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.9.3.291 · Cited by 84
“Weldon, & Challis, 1989) and Tulving and Schacter (1990)”
BackgroundEmotion: A Unified Mechanistic Interpretation from a Cognitive Architecture
Sun, R., Wilson, N., & Lynch, M. F. (2015) · Cognitive Computation · doi:10.1007/s12559-015-9374-4 · Cited by 87
“by, for example, Schacter [37], Reber [32], Sun [44], and Evans and Frankish [8].”
Embodiment and personal identity in dementia
Fuchs, T. A. E. (2020) · Medicine Health Care and Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s11019-020-09973-0 · Cited by 89
“It is actualized through the medium of the body without requiring us to recall earlier situations (Schacter 1987; Fuchs 2008, 2012), or in other words, it is our lived past.”
BackgroundThe great escape: A neuropsychological study of psychogenic amnesia
Kopelman, M. D., Christensen, H. M., Puffett, A., & Stanhope, N. (1994) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(94)90028-0 · Cited by 84
Generation and priming effects in word-fragment completion.
Gardiner, J. M. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.14.3.495 · Cited by 84
Manipulation of Attention at Study Affects an Explicit but Not an Implicit Test of Memory
Szymanski, K. F., & MacLeod, C. M. (1996) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1006/ccog.1996.0010 · Cited by 85
“The major difference between these two types of remembering is their degree of dependency on consciousness at the time of retrieval (Graf & Schacter, 1985; Schacter, 1987).”
Implicit Memory in Music and Language
Ettlinger, M., Margulis, E. H., & Wong, P. C. M. (2011) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00211 · Cited by 99
“Implicit memory is generally defined as acquired knowledge that is not available to conscious access (Schacter and Graf, 1986; Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundA test of the regulatory fit hypothesis in perceptual classification learning
Maddox, W. T., Baldwin, G. C., & Markman, A. B. (2006) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03195904 · Cited by 88
“It is generally agreed that mammals have multiple memory systems (Poldrack & Packard, 2003; Schacter, 1987; Squire, 1992), and there is an overwhelming body of evidence to suggest that multiple classification learning systems exist (for reviews, see Ashby & Maddox, 2005; erickson & Kruschke, 1998;…”
BackgroundImplicit and explicit memory for novel visual objects in older and younger adults.
Schacter, D. L., Cooper, L. A., & Valdiserri, M. (1992) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.7.2.299 · Cited by 84
Self-citationDifferential effects of aging and Alzheimer's disease on conceptual implicit and explicit memory.
Monti, L. A., Gabrieli, J. D. E., Reminger, S. L., Rinaldi, J., Wilson, R. S., & Fleischman, D. A. (1996) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.10.1.101 · Cited by 87
Duchek, J. M., & Neely, J. H. (1989) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197065 · Cited by 84
Influence of prior events on cognitive judgments in amnesia.
Squire, L. R., & McKee, R. (1992) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.18.1.106 · Cited by 85
Intact text-specific reading skill in amnesia.
Musen, G., Shimamura, A. P., & Squire, L. R. (1990) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.16.6.1068 · Cited by 84
“A considerable body of experimental work has accumulated in recent years to support the idea that memory is not a unitary property of the mind but is composed of multiple, different processes or systems (Hintzman, 1990; RichardsonKlavehn & Bjork, 1988; Schacter, 1987; Squire, 1982; 1987; Tulving, 1985).”
BackgroundAfter 8 Months have Passed: Long-term Recall of Events by 1- to 2-year-old Children
Bauer, P. J., Hertsgaard, L. A., & Dow, G. A. (1994) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658219408258955 · Cited by 84
Task demands and memory in web interaction: a levels of processing approach
Oulasvirta, A. (2004) · Interacting with Computers · doi:10.1016/j.intcom.2003.12.004 · Cited by 83
“The most relevant division of memory systems here is the distinction between explicit and implicit memory (Graf & Schacter, 1985; Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundEngelmann, M., Hädicke, J., & Noack, J. (2011) · Nature Protocols · doi:10.1038/nprot.2011.353 · Cited by 85
“Today, memory whose recall requires unconscious access to the learned items is called nondeclarative or implicit memor”
BackgroundSource memory: Extending the boundaries of age-related deficits.
Schacter, D. L., Osowiecki, D. M., Kaszniak, A. W., Kihlstrom, J. F., & al, E. (1994) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.9.1.81 · Cited by 83
Self-citationModes of Religiosity: Towards a Cognitive Explanation of the Sociopolitical Dynamics of Religion
Whitehouse, H. (2002) · Method & Theory in the Study of Religion · doi:10.1163/157006802320909738 · Cited by 186
“In the 1 The dividing lines between explicit and implicit memory are difficult to draw (for a fine overview, see Schachter 1987), but evidence from studies of normal cognition (e.g., Roediger 1990) and amnesic patients (e.g. Graf, Squire, and Mandler 1984) show that such a distinction (or a series…”
BackgroundRajaram, S., & Neely, J. H. (1992) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/0749-596x(92)90009-m · Cited by 82
Alpha Sleep and Information Processing, Perception of Sleep, Pain, and Arousability in Fibromyalgia
Perlis, M. L., Giles, D. E., Bootzin, R. R., Dikman, Z. V., Fleming, G. M., Drummond, S. P. A., & Rose, M. W. (1997) · International Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.3109/00207459708988479 · Cited by 82
A bias interpretation of facilitation in perceptual identification.
Ratcliff, R., McKoon, G., & Verwoerd, M. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.15.3.378 · Cited by 82
Impairment of memory for spatial context in schizophrenia.
Rizzo, L., Danion, J., der Linden, M. V., Grangé, D., & Rohmer, J.-G. (1996) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.10.3.376 · Cited by 82
“…resembles more that observed in amnesia patients with superimposed frontal lobe lesions, that is, patients with alcoholic Korsakoff's syndrome (Schacter, 1987), suggesting that the frontal lobe dysfunction associated with schizophrenia (Weinberger, 1988; Winn, 1994) plays a role in the memory…”
BackgroundReisenzein, R., & Weber, H. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511596544.007 · Cited by 84
The role of mood in the expression of intergroup stereotypes
Esses, V. M., Haddock, G., & Zanna, M. P. (1994) · ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) · doi:10.4324/9780203763377-7 · Cited by 81
What do we know about implicit false-belief tracking?
Schneider, D., Slaughter, V. P., & Dux, P. E. (2014) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-014-0644-z · Cited by 84
Retrieval experience in prospective memory: Strategic monitoring and spontaneous retrieval
Meier, B., Zimmermann, T. D., & Perrig, W. J. (2006) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210600783774 · Cited by 80
“It is generally assumed that priming effects are attributable to the activation of knowledge structures and that this activation occurs automatically and spontaneously (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Graf & Masson, 1993; Schacter, 1987; Underwood, 1996).”
Reading and the Neurocognitive Bases of Statistical Learning
Sawi, O. M., & Rueckl, J. G. (2018) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2018.1457681 · Cited by 82
“A related and overlapping dichotomy is the distinction between implicit and explicit memory (e.g., Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundInfluentialDeckersbach, T., Savage, C. R., Henin, A., Mataix‐Cols, D., Otto, M. W., Wilhelm, S., Rauch, S. L., Baer, L., & Jenike, M. A. (2000) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1076/1380-3395(200010)22:5;1-9;ft640 · Cited by 80
“As a measure of memory, the RCFT taps the domain of episodic memory, which refers to the explicit recollection of information encountered in a specific study episode (Graf & Schacter, 1985; Schacter, 1987).”
BackgroundExplicit Memory and Repetition Priming in Depression
Danion, J. (1991) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1991.01810320031005 · Cited by 80
Functional Anatomy of Long-Term Memory
Poldrack, R. A., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (1997) · Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1097/00004691-199707000-00003 · Cited by 82
CALM: Categorizing and learning module
Murre, J. M. J., Phaf, R. H., & Wolters, G. (1992) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/s0893-6080(05)80007-3 · Cited by 80
The Aristotelian conception of habit and its contribution to human neuroscience
Bernácer, J., & Murillo, J. I. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00883 · Cited by 84
The hidden power of implicit collective memory
Erll, A. (2022) · Memory Mind & Media · doi:10.1017/mem.2022.7 · Cited by 86
“…procedural memories (i.e., for binding shoelaces or riding a bike, ‘knowing how’) all the way to effects of perceptual and conceptual priming (see Schacter 1987; on procedural vs. declarative memory, see Squire 1987).1 Priming is a standard psychological method to make implicit memory…”
MethodImplicit and Explicit Knowledge About Language
Ellis, N. C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02240-6_7 · Cited by 87
Metadata
- Authors
- Schacter, D. L.
- Corresponding author
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- ORCID
- Schacter, Daniel L.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 1987-07
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 501-518
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2166869510
- Cited by
- 2,983
- References
- 177
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 53 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 69 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 74 · 2012: 85
- FWCI
- 56.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- implicit memory, declarative memory, memory dissociation, conscious recollection, free recall, recognition memory, cued recall
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
